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2003/04 Research Final Report Summaries

MAF Policy Information Paper 55
ISSN 1171-4654
ISBN 0-478-07844-7
December 2004

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Disclaimer

While every effort has been made to ensure that the information herein is accurate. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF) does not accept liability for error or fact or opinion which may be present, nor for the consequences of any financial decision based on this information. The reports and material submitted by the various research providers, which are contained within the publications, have been prepared in accordance with reasonable standards of scientific endeavour. The research providers also have no control over its use by third parties, and shall likewise have no liability to a third party arising from their use of this information.

Any views or opinions expressed do not represent the official view of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.

Printing of material from this report is welcomed (except for commercial use or on advertising or promotional material), provided proper acknowledgement is made to the source.

For additional information

Comments and enquiries concerning the contents of this document can be directed to:

Science Policy
MAF Policy
P O Box 2526
WELLINGTON

Requests for further copies should be directed to:

Manager
MAF Information Bureau
P O Box 2526
WELLINGTON
Telephone: (04) 894 0100
Facsimile: (04) 894 0720

Or alternatively we invite you to visit our site at:

www.maf.govt.nz/publications

1. Facilitating Market Access Category

1.1 FMA 110

Programme Title:	Prolapses in Pigs
Programme Leader:	David Lawton
Institution:	Massey University

GOAL

To identify an appropriate approach or approaches to manage grower pigs and sows with prolapses to maintain appropriate welfare standards.

BACKGROUND

The Animal Welfare Act 1999 states that it is an offence to transport an animal in a manner or position that causes the animal unreasonable or unnecessary pain or distress. The New Zealand Food Safety Authority (NZFSA) is responsible for defining the requirements for acceptability for animals for processing into food. These requirements include that animals are normal, uninjured and disease free unless certified as fit for transport by a veterinarian.

The New Zealand pork industry is supportive of these general requirements. However, its experience, supported by its veterinary advisers, considers that pigs with prolapse that meet certain criteria can be transported to slaughter and enter into the food processing chain without compromising the welfare of the animal. In some situations this approach may represent the best practical option for the pig’s welfare.

It was agreed that a review of the relevant science was a necessary basis from which to set regulatory requirements for managing pigs with prolapse. An indicative measure of the number of pigs likely to be affected would also be useful.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

A literature review has evaluated the current literature on rectal/vaginal prolapse in the pig. The review considered the anatomy, pathogenesis and aetiology of prolapse development. A “best estimate” of pigs in the New Zealand pork industry likely to be affected by prolapse was established via a survey of a small selected group of New Zealand pork producers.

These inputs formed the basis for recommending appropriate practical management options to deal with pigs with prolapse in New Zealand.

Outcomes:

Recommended management practices were identified for both grower pigs with rectal prolapse and sows with rectal and/or vaginal prolapse.

A key finding was that transport to slaughter is an appropriate management option where the prolapse is fresh and the animal is bright and alert with no obvious signs of discomfort. Certain qualifying criteria were identified, including that “fresh” ideally means within 72 hours, and ideally the pig should be transported separately or with some similar status pigs. Both transporters and slaughter house personnel should be made aware of the delivery of pigs with prolapse.

Another management option is treatment that is recommended by a veterinarian. This option may be necessary for sows due to farrow or with unweaned piglets, to maintain net welfare of both the sow and her unborn and/or unweaned piglets.

The uncertainty associated with specifying exactly what constitutes a “fresh” prolapse and also the impact of transport were noted. A further recommendation is to develop a pictorial guide.

It is recognised that the final decision on the welfare of a pig with prolapse will be made by the slaughter house veterinarian. Copies of the report will be provided to all slaughter house veterinarians.

1.2 FMA 111

Programme Title:	Soil phytosanitary issues
Programme Leader:	Dr John Marshall
Institution:	Crop and Food CRI

RESEARCH PROGRAMME NOT YET COMPLETED AND REPORTED AT TIME OF THE PREPARATION OF THIS PUBLICATION. THIS WILL BE REPORTED IN NEXT RESEARCH RESULTS PUBLICATION.

1.3 FMA 113

Programme Title:	Transport and heat stress
Programme Leader:	Terry Reid
Institution:	Canesis

RESEARCH PROGRAMME NOT YET COMPLETED AND REPORTED AT TIME OF THE PREPARATION OF THIS PUBLICATION. THIS WILL BE REPORTED IN NEXT RESEARCH RESULTS PUBLICATION

1.4 FMA 114

Programme Title:	Economic costs and animal welfare
Programme Leader:	Kevin Stafford
Institution:	Massey University

RESEARCH PROGRAMME NOT YET COMPLETED AND REPORTED AT TIME OF THE PREPARATION OF THIS PUBLICATION. THIS WILL BE REPORTED IN NEXT RESEARCH RESULTS PUBLICATION

1.5 FMA 115

Programme Title:	Deer wintering systems
Programme Leader:	Gary Rae
Institution:	Canterbury Agriculture

RESEARCH PROGRAMME NOT YET COMPLETED AND REPORTED AT TIME OF THE PREPARATION OF THIS PUBLICATION. THIS WILL BE REPORTED IN NEXT RESEARCH RESULTS PUBLICATION.

1.6 FMA 116

Programme Title:	Shelter for lambing
Programme Leader:	Dr Jo Pollard
Institution:	AgResearch CRI

SUMMARY

To provide farmers and MAF with a review of information on the costs, benefits and risks of providing different forms of shelter for lambing.

Context of project: In New Zealand flocks, 10-25 % of lambs die during the first three days after birth. This loss and the apparent lack of care in lambing paddocks offering little in the way of shelter can be detrimental to New Zealand’s image as a responsible producer of animal products. It was considered likely that farmers had inadequate information on the costs, benefits and risks of providing shelter and this may be a factor underlying the lack of shelter on many farms. This review described and summarised this information for use by farmers and by MAF and the National Animal Advisory Committee in revising standards and recommendations in the sheep code of welfare required by the Animal Welfare Act (1999).

Approach: A literature review was carried out covering the following topics: the thermal physiology of lambs (including effects of weather conditions and animal factors); forms of shelter suitable for lambing in New Zealand (including their costs, management requirements and effects on pasture production and fertility); and the benefits and use of shelter by sheep at lambing. An economic model was applied using three case study farms based on physical data from the MWI Economic survey farms in Wairarapa, Canterbury and Southland representing 58% of New Zealand’s sheep flock. Lamb survival was predicted using the LambAlive lamb mortality model and NIWA climatic data from 1999 to 2003. Economic data from the MWI Economic service was used to value the lambs saved and extra pasture grown (through increasing stocking rate). The estimates of shelter belt production and values were taken from the literature.

BACKGROUND

Outcomes: Wind and wet coats create dangerous conditions for lambs even at moderate temperatures by exceeding their capacity for heat production in the short or long term. Lambs compromised by birth injury, small size, inexperienced dams, etc. are particularly at risk. Deaths from starvation and exposure are linked because cold conditions debilitate lambs and impair progress towards sucking, while lack of colostrum reduces the ability to produce heat. Wet, cold, windy weather increased mortality rates in Australian Merino and Corriedale lambs by 38-76 %, and in New Zealand lamb breeds by 10-20 % (more in snow conditions). Shelter decreased single lamb mortality by 3-13 %, and twin lamb mortality by 14-37 % in Australian Merino and Corriedale sheep. Reductions in lamb mortality rates due to shelter in New Zealand studies have generally been less than 10 %. The most effective shelter would protect lambs from wind and rain and possibly conductive heat losses to the ground. Sunshine is highly beneficial in reducing heat loss. There is little information on effects of shelter on lamb growth or health.

Lambing sheep tend to seek isolation and shelter. They prefer dense shelter that protects from many angles and will walk windward to reach familiar shelter. Scattered shelter allows isolation, increases sheltering opportunities for lambs and should reduce concentrations of sheep. Appropriate shelter is likely to reduce pain/discomfort from cold, reduce starvation deaths and allow normal behaviour patterns to occur.

Suitable boundary shelter is a double row with a dense hedge windward and taller, permeable trees leeward. The establishment cost is about $6.00/m (with electric fencing) and $9.50/m (standard fencing). Economic modeling predicted that the value of lambs kept alive by traditional shelter provided only a marginal return in Wairarapa and Canterbury, unless other benefits such as increased pasture growth, resource protection and timber were included. Shelter was most beneficial as ambient temperatures declined and provided a significant economic advantage in Southland. Careful selection of plant stock and species, planning (considering location, orientation, irrigation and shading), site preparation and management will maximize shelter effectiveness and minimize problems with pests, harsh climate and disease. Alternative shelter likely to be cost-effective includes lamb covers (wool, commercial plastic or bread bag) and within-paddock shelter (tussocks/marginally palatable shrubs, or fodder species). Research needs identified were the effects of shelter (including tussocks and lamb covers) from wind, rain and wet ground on lamb survival, growth and health.

DISCUSSION

The project aimed to provide farmers and MAF with a review of information on the costs, benefits and risks of providing different forms of shelter for lambing. A literature review was carried out covering the following topics: the thermal physiology of lambs (including effects of weather conditions and animal factors); forms of shelter suitable for lambing in New Zealand (including costs, management requirements and effects on pasture production and fertility); and the benefits and use of shelter by sheep at lambing. An economic model was applied using three case study farms based on physical data from the MWI Economic survey farms in Wairarapa, Canterbury and Southland representing 58% of New Zealand’s sheep flock. Lamb survival was predicted using the LambAlive lamb mortality model and NIWA climatic data from 1999 to 2003. Economic data from the MWI Economic service was used to value the lambs saved and extra pasture grown (through increasing stocking rate). The estimates of shelter belt production and values were taken from the literature.

PUBLICATIONS

Pollard, J.C., Wills, B.J., Stevens, D.R., Wass, J.A., Harris, M.J., 2004. Shelter for lambing. Client Report. MAFPolicy Project FMA 116. 58 pp.

1.7 FMA 118

Programme Title:	Lambs’ neural responses
Programme Leader:	Dr Craig Johnson
Institution:	Massey University

SUMMARY

To quantify the way in which the cerebro-cortical response of lambs to rubber ring castration changes in the first eight weeks of life.

BACKGROUND

The aim of this project was to characterize the way in which the electroencephalogram (EEG) of lambs changes in response to rubber ring castration during the first eight weeks of life. Last year we demonstrated that this response is greater in two-week old than four-week old lambs. This study extends our previous work and surveys the electroencephalographic response to castration over the first eight weeks after birth.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

Lambs ranging in age from 3 hours to eight weeks (n=68) were used in this study. Anaesthesia was induced by mask and maintained with halothane in oxygen. End tidal carbon dioxide (P_ECO₂), end tidal halothane (P_EHal), blood oxygen saturation and body temperature were monitored. P_EHal was titrated to 1.2% and P_ECO₂ to between 40 and 60 mmHg. Data collection commenced 10 minutes after P_EHal was stabilised at 1.2 %. Fifteen minutes after the start of data collection the lambs were castrated by application of rubber ring according to standard animal husbandry practice. Data were collected for a further 15 minutes.

Total power (ptot), median frequency (F50) and the 95% spectral edge frequency (F95) were calculated from the EEG for consecutive two-second epochs. Data from 5 spectra were averaged to give one data point every 10 seconds. Electroencephalographic variables for the 5 minute period immediately after the start of castration were compared with that immediately prior to castration. Data are described in terms of percentage increase from baseline and presented as standard error of the mean ( ± SEM). A curve of best fit was constructed for lambs aged between 3h and 10 days.

Outcomes:

Following castration the majority of lambs exhibited an increase in F50 (90 % of lambs) and F95 (70 % of lambs), and a decrease in ptot (90 % of lambs). These changes were statistically significant (Table 1). Furthermore, there appeared to be a trend in response with age. Over the first 10 days after birth there appeared to be an increase in F50 and F95 and decrease in the ptot (F50 illustrated in Fig 1a). These trends continued for all variables until about the fifth week, after which the magnitude of the change decreased (F50 illustrated in Fig 1b). In addition, F50 appeared to cross the y–axis near the origin. Data points plotted in Fig 1 represent the rolling mean of values for ten animals. For each group the final value is plotted as mean age against mean change in EEG variable.

Table 1

	f50	f95	ptot
Mean difference (%)	16 ± 2	3 ± 1	-6 ± 1
Significance (p value)	0.0001	0.03	0.0001

Figure 1

a)b)

Summary:

This study aimed to quantify the way in which the cerebro-cortical response of lambs to rubber ring castration changes in the first eight weeks of life.

Lambs ranging in age from 3 hours to eight weeks were anaesthetised. Anaesthesia was induced by mask with halothane in oxygen. Once the lambs were anaesthetised tidal carbon dioxide (P_ECO₂), end tidal halothane (P_EHal), blood oxygen saturation (SpO₂) and body temperature (T) were monitored. P_EHal was titrated to 1.2% and P_ECO₂ to between 40 and 60 mmHg. Fifteen minutes after the start of data collection the lambs were castrated by application of rubber ring according to standard animal husbandry practice. Data were collected for a further 15 minutes. Total power (ptot), median frequency (F50) and the 95% spectral edge frequency (F95) were calculated from the EEG. Electroencephalographic variables for the 5 minute period immediately after the start of castration were compared with that immediately prior to castration. Data are described in terms of percentage increase from baseline and presented as mean ± SEM. A curve of best fit was constructed for lambs aged between 3h and 10 days.

Following castration the majority of lambs exhibited an increase in F50 (90 % of lambs) and F95 (70 % of lambs), and a decrease in ptot (90 % of lambs). Furthermore, there appeared to be a trend in response with age. Over the first 10 days after birth there appeared to be an increase in F50 and F95 and decrease in the ptot. These trends continued for all variables until about the fifth week, after which the magnitude of the change decreased. In addition, F50 appeared to cross the y–axis near the origin.

PUBLICATIONS:

CB Johnson KJ Stafford SP Sylvester SL Mitchinson RN Ward and DJ Mellor (2004). The effect of age on the cerebro-cortical response of lambs to rubber-ring castration. Proceedings NZPS.

1.8 FMA 119

Programme Title:	Level 3 Post Entry Quarantine
Programme Leader:	Bruce Koller
Institution:	Nimmo-Bell Consultancy

SUMMARY

To ensure that New Zealand’s agricultural and horticultural sectors are based on the best genetic material available from anywhere in the world.

BACKGROUND

A partnership between the industry sectors and government would enable the restoration and continued provision, at least cost, of level 3 post-entry quarantine facilities, diagnostic capabilities and testing for imported plant material. This will facilitate the entry into quarantine of desirable propagative material, its maintenance, and its release to industry in the shortest time possible without compromising biosecurity.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

For this business to operate effectively it will need to be a partnership between central government (represented by MAF, which we referred to in this document as “government”) and other interested parties (which we refer to as “private”). It is expected these will include industry sector associations and organisations, CRIs, universities and entrepreneurial companies, partnerships, and individuals from the private sector.

The charter: The business will, as an effective partnership:

Work with the interested private parties to identify and source new plant genetic material such that each of the industry groups has access to genetic material of the highest quality. This will ensure product of exceptional quality is available to consumers in New Zealand and internationally and that profitability is enhanced. A significant contribution will be made to the growth of these industries and to innovation that will benefit the contributors and citizens of New Zealand.

Respond to the needs of entrepreneurs so that new plant products can be introduced, developed and marketed successfully.

Facilitate and contribute to the review of existing Import Health Standards and the development of new standards for crops not presently specified.

Facilitate and contribute to the development of protocols and manuals for the operation of containment facilities and the provision of diagnostic services.

Facilitate and contribute to the organisation of plant importation requirements (Level 1 through Level 3) into one cost-effective seamless system.

Contract the supply of containment facilities and diagnostic services such that there is continuity of supply of these services and that plant genetic material is able to be imported, tested and released to the importers in the shortest possible time and at reasonable cost.

Operate a system such that the integrity of imports is preserved, the confidentiality of commercial information is maintained and that entrepreneurs taking the initiative have every opportunity to benefit from their investment.

Develop and implement appropriate systems for the auditing of the contracted services and the retention of appropriate information in computerised databases.

The functions of the Establishment Board of this business will include:

Building effective relationships with the horticultural industry sectors and ornamental importers to determine what assistance is needed to enable the accession and importation of plant genetic material that has not been able to be imported since 2001.

Developing the business plan and budget to implement the Charter and securing the necessary funding from the contributing partners.

Managing the interface between government and private participants and contributors to the partnership.

Resourcing and implementing the activities necessary to fulfil the requirements of the Charter.

Acquiring information on likely future demand and developing strategies to manage annual fluctuations in the demand such that the continued availability of the services are ensured.

1.9 FMA 120

Programme Title:	Benchmarking New Zealand forest competitiveness
Programme Leader:	German Ortiz
Institution:	Forest Research CRI

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this project was to update the report prepared by Forest Research for MAF in 2001 titled “The Forest Processing Investment Environment” (Brown & Ortiz), specifically Part II. Benchmarking New Zealand Competitiveness. MAF also wanted to extend the analysis to Brazil, China and India. As a further but related item, MAF wanted to source specific information on the tax regime in the evaluated countries for new investments in wood processing equipment and related capital investments (including information on depreciation rates if possible).

MAF wanted to have an update on the status of the competitiveness of the New Zealand wood processing industry taking into consideration changes in the forest processing investment environment in New Zealand and in the evaluated countries since the original report was produced.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

In general terms the methodology used for the update was the same as for the original report. A country competitiveness evaluation was done using the IMD’s World Competitiveness Yearbook as source. Then a specific evaluation of wood processing factors was done, using quantitative and qualitative information, with multiple sources including a literature review and interviews with Forest Research staff and external experts. The evaluation of wood processing factors led to a scale classification of the wood processing factors of competitiveness from 1 to 10, with 1 indicating the least competitive and 10 indicating the most competitive. Finally, an index was built comparing New Zealand and 8 other competitor countries combining the country competitiveness with the wood processing factors competitiveness.

Outcomes:

The following table summarises the results of the Wood Processing Competitiveness Index update for 2004:

The results of the index show that the competitiveness of New Zealand’s wood processing industry did not change from its evaluation of 2001, remaining with the same score (7.0), and in the same relative position in relation to the countries evaluated in the original study. Furthermore, all the countries evaluated in the original study kept their relative position in the 2004 update. The reasons for this are mainly due to the relative lack of significant changes in the components of the index, or because changes in the general competitiveness component were balanced with changes in the wood processing component, as was the case for Australia, for example.

New Zealand’s wood processing industry’s major competitive strengths are its processing development and industry knowledge, its general competitiveness level, and its wood resources, while its weaknesses are its relative low market development and investment attractiveness. A brief summary of the competitiveness level for each selected country is also presented in the report.

Finally, on the specific topic of depreciation rules, the study concluded that these are not a significant factor for the competitiveness of the wood processing industry in any of the countries selected for this report including New Zealand.

This project updated the report prepared by Forest Research for MAF in 2001 titled “The Forest Processing Investment Environment” (Brown & Ortiz), specifically Part II: Benchmarking New Zealand Competitiveness.

MAF wanted to have an update on the status of the competitiveness of the New Zealand wood processing industry taking into consideration changes in the forest processing investment environment in New Zealand and in the evaluated countries since the original report was produced.

1.10 FMA 123

Programme Title:	Shade for sheep
Programme Leader:	Drs Jim Webster & Jo Pollard
Institution:	AgResearch CRI

BACKGROUND

To define the behavioural and physiological needs of sheep for shade in hot, dry and hot, or humid environments.

Context of project

In many regions of New Zealand sheep seek shade on sunny days during much of the year. Shade is likely to be needed most in hot, humid conditions where respiratory cooling is less effective but they may also experience an excessive heat load in areas with high solar radiation. This project assessed the needs of sheep for shade in dry and humid environments by quantifying effects of shade on behaviour and physiological indicators of thermal status. The project provided information on the degree to which welfare is compromised by lack of shade in these environments, to assist MAF Policy in preparing welfare guidelines for sheep husbandry.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

This project aimed to define the behavioural and physiological needs of sheep for shade in dry and humid environments, by quantifying effects of shade on behaviour and physiological indicators of thermal status, to assist MAF Policy in preparing welfare guidelines for sheep husbandry.

Sheep were studied in February 2003 at Poolburn (mean daily temperature 18.5^oC and humidity 49%), and in January 2004 at Hamilton (mean daily temperature 22.0^oC and humidity 67%). At each site 24 Romney crossbred ewes, divided into two groups of 12, were observed on 10 consecutive fine days. The groups were studied in adjacent paddocks, one with shade provided by trees and one with no shade, for five days; then groups were swapped between paddocks. Records were made of daytime activities; respiration rate in the early morning, early afternoon and during handling; and intra-vaginal temperature and weather conditions every 10 minutes during the 10 days.

Activities (grazing, standing and lying down) differed between groups with and without shade, and differences were more pronounced at Hamilton than Poolburn. Sheep with shade used it in over 80% of observations in which they were lying down, when shade was visible. At Poolburn intra-vaginal temperatures were higher in the sheep without shade during the full 24 hour period and during daylight hours (P<0.001). At Hamilton the difference in intra-vaginal temperatures between no shade and shade treatments was greater than at Poolburn and persisted at night-time (P<0.001). Respiration rates in the early morning did not differ between sheep without shade and those with shade at either site. Respiration rates in the afternoon at both sites were higher in the sheep without shade than in those with shade (respective means at Poolburn were 121 compared to 93, standard error deviation (SED) 7.0 breaths/min, P<0.001; at Hamilton 226 compared to 130, SED 8.1 breaths/min, P<0.001). At Hamilton, open mouth panting was seen in resting sheep. The substantial use of shade and reductions in intra-vaginal temperature and respiration rate in the sheep with shade (especially at Hamilton) indicated that it was of significant benefit to the welfare of the sheep in the study.

PUBLICATIONS

Pollard, J.C.; Cox, N.; Hogan, N.; Huddart, F.; Chaya, W.; Paterson, R.; Wigbolus, L. 2004 Behavioural and physiological responses of sheep to shade. Client Report. MAFPolicy Project FMA 123. 36 pp.

2. Maintaining Biosecurity Category

2.0 MBS 329

Programme Title:	Contact Rates for livestock
Programme Leader:	Dr Robert Sanson
Institution:	AgriQuality

SUMMARY

Establish reliable estimates of movement patterns between farms, to provide background data to support epidemic spread modelling

BACKGROUND

Modelling using InterSpread is an important tool to understand spread, resource requirements and control mechanisms for exotic disease responses. Models require accurate estimates of contact rates and the spatial patterns of contact. A previous study (Sanson et al., NZVJ 41, 21-28, 1993) studied movement patterns onto and off 178 farms in Southland during a single two-week period. This study attempted to update those findings using a broader cross-section of pastoral livestock farms

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

Five hundred farmers, comprising 100 randomly selected from each of the dairy, dairy dry stock and grazing, beef, sheep and mixed sheep and beef farm types recorded in AgriBase were asked to complete movement diaries covering two 3-week periods of the year, representing a Quiet and Busy time of the year respectively. All movements off farms were recorded into a database. Farm movements were assessed in terms of risk of transmission of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) should it have been present on the participating farm. Frequency of movements by risk and distances travelled were calculated for the different farm sectors.

In addition, two livestock sales occurring at a large South Island saleyard were analysed and traced, to provide estimates of the ratio of animal consignments (lots) ending up back on farms vs. presented for sale.

Outcomes:

Busy period diaries were completed by 193 farmers, recording a total of 12,052 movements off their farms, an average of 62.4 movements per 3-week period. Of these, 2.48 involved the transport of livestock, equating to 0.83 livestock consignments per week. In contrast, 186 Quiet period diaries were returned, with a total of 10,885 movements off recorded, representing an average of 58.5 movements off during the 3-week period. Of these, 1.22 involved livestock, equating to 0.41 livestock consignments per week. Tables 1 and 2 summarise the number of movements by risk rating per farm per day where the destination was another farm.

Table 1. Number of movements to another farm per farm per day by risk rating for the different livestock sectors occurring during a Busy period of the year.

	RISK RATING
Farm Type	HIGH	MED	LOW
BEF	0.033	0.473	0.089
DAI	0.051	0.975	0.062
GRADRY	0.133	1.006	0.125
SHP	0.026	0.419	0.038
SNB	0.06	0.651	0.08

Table 2. Number of movements to another farm per farm per day by risk rating for the different livestock sectors occurring during a Quiet period of the year.

	RISK RATING
Farm Type	HIGH	MED	LOW
BEF	0.021	0.42	0.034
DAI	0.033	0.782	0.139
GRADRY	0.092	0.812	0.144
SHP	0.018	0.442	0.039
SNB	0.024	0.453	0.024

Table 3 summarises the sales records based on two successive days at Canterbury Park saleyard, Christchurch.

Table 3. Saleyard data for two successive sales days at Canterbury Park saleyard.

Item	Sale A	Sale B
Lots presented	56	21
Lots purchased	26	27
Lots purchased by dealers	2	1
Lots returned to vendor	0	0
Lots purchased by meatworks	5	0
Saleyard multiplier ratio	0.5	1.33

Summary:

Goal: Quantify movement patterns between farms, to provide data to support epidemic spread simulation using the InterSpread model.

Method: Approach a random sample of farmers to record all movements onto and off their farms during two 3-week periods representing a busy and quiet time of the year respectively. Classify movements by risk of transmission of FMD and calculate distances travelled. Trace and analyse livestock sales records from at least one sale.

Results: 193 farmers completed a Busy period diary, recording a total of 12,052 movements off their farms, an average of 62.4 movements per 3-week period. Of these, 2.48 involved the transport of livestock, equating to 0.83 livestock consignments per week. In contrast, 186 Quiet period diaries were returned, with a total of 10,885 movements off recorded, representing an average of 58.5 movements off during the 3-week period. Of these, 1.22 involved livestock, equating to 0.41 livestock consignments per week. Saleyard multiplier ratios (lots purchasded / lots presented for sale) from the traced sales data ranged from 0.5 to 1.33.

PUBLICATIONS

To date (16 March 2004), the study was presented at the X^th International Symposium on Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics, Viňa del Mar, Chile, 17-21 Novemebr 2003, and published in the Proceedings.

The study will also be presented at the Food Safety & Biosecurity Branch (FSB) sessions of the 2004 NZVA Conference in June.

2.1 MBS 330

Programme Title:	Treatments for peat
Programme Leader:	Lian-Heng Cheah
Institution:	Crop and Food CRI

SUMMARY

To evaluate and develop effective and practical technique(s) for control of regulated pests and pathogens associated with pest products.

BACKGROUND

New Zealand imports a range of peat products including peat and sphagnum moss. Peat is extracted from the ground and may harbour soil-borne pests and pathogens. MAF needs to identify methods of disinfestation that will ensure that there is no possibility of contamination of peat, peat products and sphagnum moss by pests.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

Methods and materials

Peat from four sources was treated:-

Source: Biogreen Australia	Type of Peat: Australian Peat
Rainbow Park Nurseries	Canadian Peat Moss (sphagnum moss)
Scotts Australia PTY	Shamrock Peat
Transplant Systems Ltd	Kekkila Oji Finnish peat

1. Dry hot air

A grain drier was modified for the purposes of this experiment. Air was blown over heated coils to produce the hot air. This heated air was chanelled through a chamber connected to three containers which contained peat samples. The air circulated around the containers and heated the peat. The temperature wass controlled by a thermostat and could operate from 0^o to 120^oC.

Peat samples were placed in the centre of metal mesh containers (150mm x 150mm x 150mm, approx 75gm per sample). One container was used and the experiment was repeated three times for each run. In the first experiment, peat was heated at 85^oC for 12 hours. In the second experiment, peat was heated at 100^oC for 6 hours. One untreated control was used for each dry hot air treatment.

2. Envirosol fumigation

A stainless steel container (92L) with inlet and outlet valves was used in this experiment. Peat samples in metal mesh containers, (150mm x 150mm x 150mm, approx 75g each) were placed in the centre of a container. Fumigas 300 was injected into the container through an inlet valve. Two rates and durations of fumigation were tested. In the first experiment 3 seconds @ 5.56gm/sec application of Fumigas 300 using a pressurised gun for 8 hours was used and in the second experiment 6 seconds @ 5.56gm/sec application for 8 hours was used. One untreated control was used for each fumigation treatment. The experiment was repeated three times for each rate.

3. Steam

A Thermaqua steam boiler was used to generate steam. Steam generated was connected to a 60 x 40 cm stainless steel container (approx 40 litres) with a high-temperature hose. Peat products were placed in the centre of the container. Steam temperature generated was about 75-85⁰C and this could be maintained for up to 12 hours. Treatments of 4 hr and 6 hr were tested.

Plating of the treated peat:

Samples of the treated peat were taken, diluted (5x dilutions) in water and the dilutions were then plated onto nutrient agar plates to test for bacteria. For fungi, 2x dilutions were plated onto PDA. The colonies formed were counted after 3, 5 and 7 days of incubation at 22^oC. Three plates (3 replications) were used for each peat sample.

Outcomes:

The three sterilisation treatments (Envirosol fumigation, steam and dry hot air) had significantly better killing of bacteria and fungi compared to the untreated control. In general, fumigation was the most effective treatment among the three sterilisation technologies tested. Steam treatment was the second most effective followed by the dry hot air treatment.

Summary:

Three sterilisation treatments (Envirosol fumigation, steam and dry hot air) were applied to four peat products (Biogreen, Canadian, Kekkila and Shamrock) to test their effect on micro-organisms and pests in the products. All three sterilisation treatments killed significantly more bacteria and fungi than the untreated control. In general, Envirosol fumigation with Fumigas 300 (3 sec injection for 8h) was the most effective treatment. Steam treatment (100^oC for 6h) was the second most effective followed by the dry hot air (85^oC for 12h) treatment. Considering the standard errors, the fumigation and steam treatments may have equal effectiveness. In general, fumigation and steam treatments were equally effective for sterilising fungi in the peat products. Dry hot air was not as effective, but it was better than the untreated control treatment. All three treatments tested killed all mites and nematodes.

2.2 MBS 331

Programme Title:	Fungi heat tolerances
Programme Leader:	Dr Geoff Ridley
Institution:	Forest Research CRI

SUMMARY

To provide data on the heat tolerance and lethality of fungi in wood to establish effective heat treatment regimes for fungi on wood products imported into New Zealand.

BACKGROUND

Currently MAF treats imported wood products contaminated by fungi by heating to 70^oC for 4 hours (core temperature; MAF 2003). However, a new international standard for solid wood products suggests using 56^oC for 30 minutes as an alternative treatment (FAO 2002). This is a pragmatic choice "chosen in consideration of the wide range of pests for which this combination is documented to be lethal and a commercially feasible treatment". In actuality this treatment is derived from a study to eradicate pine wood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, from pine wood. Surprisingly, there is little in the way of published results on temperatures that kill individual fungal species.Where data do exist they are almost exclusively involved in sterilising materials; that is, the total destruction of all living microorganisms within the material being treated. Such treatment of wood products has the potential to be very destructive to them and unnecessary if the target microorganisms can be eliminated at a low temperature.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

Wood blocks were infested with selected fungi and subjected to a range of temperatures and exposure times. The fungi tested were: Armillaria novae-zealandia, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Cladosporium herbarum, Fusarium circinatum, Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, Phellinus weirii, Phlebiopsis gigantea, Phytophthora cinnamomi, Schizophyllum commune and Sphaeropsis sapinea.

Summary:

The temperatures and exposure times necessary to eliminate fungi in wood were determined for Cladosporium herbarum, Phytophthora cinnamomi, Phellinus weirii, Phlebiopsis gigantea, Sphaeropsis sapinea, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Armillaria novae-zelandiae, Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, Fusarium circinatum, and Schizophyllum commune. In comparing in vitro and in vivo treatments, heat tolerance increase when Phlebiopsis gigantean, Sphaeropsis sapinea, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, and Fusarium circinatum are grown in wood. Tolerance to heat exposure declined for Phellinus weirii and Armillaria novae-zelandiae, and remained constant for Cladosporium herbarum and Phytophthora cinnamomi. Over time and subject to desiccation, heat tolerance declined for Phytophthora cinnamomi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, but increased for Cladosporium herbarum. Given the variation in temperatures and times necessary to kill this small subset of species tested, 40-70ºC for 10-40 minutes, a broad treatment standard is recommended. In most cases where imported products require treatment the infesting fungi will be unknown, tentatively identified or even misidentified, and likely to be in an unknown physiological state. In such cases a broad approach to treatment is recommended. MAF's current approach to treatment of moderately high temperature and long exposure time is therefore recommended.

2.3 MBS 332

Programme Title:	Modeling forest health
Programme Leader:	Tod Ramsfield
Institution:	Forest Research CRI

SUMMARY

The overall goal of the programme is to determine how well the Carter Model allocates pest detection survey effort in creating an effective forest health surveillance scheme, and to identify improvements to the model or possible alternative models. Existing costs and probabilities, factors that determine regional risk, and the marginal costing approach will be critically examined. The potential to include different survey methods will be explored.

BACKGROUND

Context of the project: Because of the threat posed by exotic organisms (i.e., insects and pathogens) to New Zealand’s forests, surveys are conducted to detect such organisms. The primary aim of these surveys is early detection as this allows a wider suite of eradication or management options to be considered. Surveys are conducted in indigenous forests, at hazard sites (see Hosking et al. 1999) and in commercial forests. Commercial forestry in New Zealand is dominated by exotic species, mainly radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don), which have been introduced to the country without most of their naturally associated pests and diseases. Survey effort to detect new pests and diseases in exotic forests is allocated using the Carter Model (Carter, 1989). This model determines the most cost-efficient combination of survey methods (aerial survey, drive-through survey and random-point plotting) for each of the 29 biological regions of New Zealand defined by Crosby et al. (1975). The aim of the Carter Model is to achieve the highest probability of detecting a new introduction for a given cost.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

This report reviews the existing forest surveillance model as the first stage of the development of a model that will ultimately enable those responsible for biosecurity in New Zealand to make informed decisions on where surveillance effort should be placed. This critical review is comprised of three parts:

1. The existing costs and detection probabilities are thoroughly reviewed, along with the factors used to estimate regional risk.

2. The model is examined in detail to determine if the marginal costing approach is appropriate.

3. The potential for other surveillance methods – for example risk site surveys, beetle trapping, and small-block surveys – to be included in a surveillance model framework is examined.

Outcomes:

Detection probabilities were investigated by updating the records of new-to-New Zealand introductions that were originally presented in Carter (1989). The average annual number of new insects and fungi detected increased from 4.471 between 1950 and 1987 to 6.126 between 1988 and 2003. However, the number of new insect detections decreased from 2.158 per annum between 1950 and 1987 to 1.688 per annum between 1988 and 2003. At the same time the number of new fungus detections increased from 2.313 per annum between 1956 and 1987 to 4.438 per annum between 1988 and 2003. Records of 84 pest species detected between 1988 and 2003 indicate that 54 were found in at least two bioregions. A significant number of organisms were found in bioregions that had a low number of first detections. This indicates the importance of maintaining some level of surveillance in regions that have low numbers of first detections of new-to-New Zealand organisms.

The theoretical and empirical results upon which the probabilities of detecting a new organism using the three different survey methods (aerial, drive-through and walk-though) are based were reviewed. While some minor discrepancies were noted, the relative probabilities of detection across the three survey methods appear reasonable. A hierarchical Bayesian model was used to model the observed rates of first and subsequent detections of new introductions. Rather than using a point estimate of the number of new introductions detected in a bioregion, the Bayesian model optimally combines information from the population of bioregions with information on each individual bioregion. The Bayesian model shows that there is considerable uncertainty in the estimated rates, particularly when these rates are low. Where the detections are low, possibly by chance and a low sampling effort, the Carter model allocates an excessively low sampling effort, hence perpetuating a low number of detections for that region. Further investigation and development of the Bayesian model as a replacement for the Carter model is recommended.

PUBLICATIONS

None to date, but it is envisaged that a manuscript will be submitted to New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science presenting some of the results of this review.

2.4 MBS 333

Programme Title:	Fusarium circinatum
Programme Leader:	Tod Ramsfield
Institution:	Forest Research CRI

SUMMARY

The DNA based diagnostic for F. circinatum that has been developed at Forest Research was initially based on 61 Fusarium isolates that represented 15 different species and was also tested on a further 10 Fusarium species by collaborators within CSIRO. In order to further screen the test, a further 17 Fusarium isolates from 12 different species were ordered from the Landcare Research culture collection. DNA was extracted from these species and subjected to the diagnostic test, and none of the additional cultures gave positive results, further strengthening the robustness of the diagnostic test.

BACKGROUND

Pitch canker, caused by the fungus Fusarium circinatum, is an extremely serious disease of Pinus radiata that is not present in New Zealand but has caused large economic losses in California, Chile, South Africa and Spain, where it has been introduced. In order to maintain the F. circinatu- free status of New Zealand, a DNA based identification tool was developed at Forest Research to enable rapid detection of the pathogen in both culture and infected tissue.

The work conducted with MAF funding was a continuation of work that was initiated at Forest Research under FRST funding.

The detection method utilizes the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify target DNA that is specific to F. circinatum. The generation of two DNA bands of the correct size represents a positive reaction. The test was initially developed with a population of 167 isolates that represented 35 different Fusarium species and included 30 isolates of F. circinatum. To further screen the specificity of the test, DNA was extracted from 19 isolates of F. circinatum in California and a further 6 isolates of F. circinatum in South Africa. While in South Africa, DNA was also extracted from 10 other isolates that represented the species that are most closely related to F. circinatum. To date testing has revealed 3 isolates of F. circinatum, all from the same vegetative compatibility group (VCG), which were not detected by the test. One isolate out of 127 isolates of species other than F. circinatum gave a positive result. Statistical analysis of the results to date using Bayesian methods indicated that 93.6% of the time the test will correctly identify F. circinatum, isolates, and that 98.8% of the time the test will correctly identify isolates as not F. circinatum.

The test proved its utility in November 2003 when it was used to initially identify F.

circinatum within Douglas fir scion material held in a quarantine greenhouse in Christchurch. After detection, the pathogen was confirmed as F. circinatum by researchers in California and the National Plant Pest Reference Laboratory. Currently, experiments are being conducted to determine if it is possible to utilize the technique to detect the fungus within infected soil. Detection in soil would be a great advantage because it is possible that if the pathogen does arrive in New Zealand, it may be detected first in the nursery, as it was in South Africa and Chile.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

When the Fusarium DNA was amplified using the multiplex PCR reaction developed previously (Ramsfield, 2004), some isolates produced the 234 base pair (bp) amplification product, but none of the isolates produced the combination of bands that would be classified as a positive reaction (Figure 1, Table 2). The only isolates that resulted in amplification of the 234 bp band were three isolates of F. anthophilum and one isolate of F. sacchari. Both of these species are members of section Liseola and are close relatives of F. circinatum and in a prior study, F. anthophilum was found to cross react with the primer pair that generates the 234 bp band. When the test was being developed, it was found that some of the primer sets that had been designed for F. circinatum also amplified DNA from close relatives, but when the two most specific PCR primer sets were combined, an F. circinatum specific reaction was identified. Only the presence of the 422 bp and 234 bp bands is considered to be a positive reaction and to date; only F. circinatum has produced these results. Other bands produced do not represent the target PCR products and are the result of amplification of non-target DNA by either primer pair or a combination of the PCR primers present in the reaction.

DNA extracted from every test isolate was also subjected to PCR amplification using the RAPD DNA primer UBC123 and PCR products were generated from all samples; therefore, the “negative” reactions that had no PCR products present represented individuals in which the PCR priming sites were absent, not failed reactions due to PCR inhibition or poor quality DNA.

2.5 MBS 336

Programme Title:	Phytoplasmas, viruses & viroids
Programme Leader:	Dr Mike Pearson
Institution:	Auckland Uniservices (Auckland University)

SUMMARY

To review and update records of phytoplasmas, plant viruses and viroids in New Zealand.

BACKGROUND

The species of phytoplasmas, plant viruses and viroids present in New Zealand and their associated host records were last thoroughly reviewed by Pennycook (1989). Although Pennycook (1989) is an important reference for MAF when assessing whether plant pathogens associated with imported commodities should be regulated there are a number of problems associated with using this reference in this way:

1. Pennycook (1989) lists not only well characterized phytoplasmas, viruses and viroids but also entries of less certain status (based on symptomology) and diseases of unknown aetiology. Therefore the validity of each record has to be assessed each time the reference is consulted.

2. There has been no update of Pennycook’s review since it was published. MAF records new phytoplasma, virus and viroid interceptions in its own database (PPIN). However, PPIN is not comprehensive and includes neither the records of Pennycook (1989) nor reports made by other organizations.

3. Changes in taxonomy mean that the status of some species must be reviewed.

MAF is currently forced to consult a wide range of references when determining the status of pathogens in New Zealand. Consequently there is a need for the records reported by Pennycook (1989) and those reported by MAF (PPIN) and in the scientific literature to be reviewed and combined into a definitive database. An accurate knowledge of the plant pathogens in New Zealand is critical to:

1. Plant Imports when determining which species should be regulated

2. Plant Exports when negotiating access for exports of plant commodities

3. Plant Pest Management when deciding responses during incursions of pathogens

Such knowledge is also a fundamental requirement supporting MAF’s obligations under the IPPC and will assist MAF in meeting its obligations under the Biosecurity Act 1993 and Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

MAF provided electronic spreadsheets of currently available lists of viruses, viroids, phytoplasmas (Pennycook, PPIN, etc.) plus electronic or hard copies of supporting documentation (journal articles, official reports, etc.).

In consultation with MAF, criteria were determined for inclusion of records in the updated list.

Existing lists were checked to determine whether records meet the agreed criteria, for errors, and for correct taxonomic names.

Additional distribution data and symptoms were added from the supporting literature, where available.

Bioabstracts, CABI, and Web of Science electronic databases, plus additional sources (including CABI Crop Protection Compendium and PPIN) were searched for records published since 1988 and these data were added to the spreadsheet.

The completed list of viruses, viroids, phytoplasmas and spirolplasmas, and their hosts, has been checked by all the main contributors (Mike Pearson, Gerard Clover, John Fletcher, and Paul Guy) and appropriate additions/corrections made.

Outcomes:

An updated and corrected list of viruses, viroids, phytoplasmas and spirolplasmas (see summary for additional details).

Provide an updated reference list collection of references (hard copies).

Summary:

As a result of this project the following the changes have been made to the list originally provided by MAF:

• 35 new virus species or disease records added;

• 21 virus species or viral-like diseases (plus some host records of other viruses) placed in the “unconfirmed” category;

• 1 new viroid species added;

• 3 existing and 2 new viroid records placed in the “unconfirmed” category;

• 5 new mollicute species added;

• 1 mollicute species has been placed in the “unconfirmed” category;

• the number of references has increased from 229 to 441.

For some of the species currently placed in the “unconfirmed” category there is reasonable suspicion that they may present in New Zealand (e.g. Citrus psorosis virus). We recommend that MAF consider which, if any, of these are of particular importance and whether further investigation (e.g. a field survey) is justified.

An edited version of the virus list (containing only virus name, host name, summary of evidence, distribution, and references) has been sent to several other people who work with viruses in New Zealand. They have been asked to look at the viruses they work with and provide comment if they are aware of any omissions. If any further information is obtained from the circulation of this list I will forward it to Gerard Clover.

PUBLICATIONS

A summary of the updated list will be published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal in the near future.

2.6 MBS 337

Programme Title:	Surface decontamination
Programme Leader:	John Fletcher
Institution:	Crop and Food CRI

RESEARCH PROGRAMME NOT YET COMPLETED AND REPORTED AT TIME OF THE PREPARATION OF THIS PUBLICATION. THIS WILL BE REPORTED IN NEXT RESEARCH RESULTS PUBLICATION.

2.7 MBS 339

Programme Title:	Hitchhiker pests
Programme Leader:	Susan Worner
Institution:	Lincoln University

SUMMARY

Goal:

Examine the use of exotic invertebrate interceptions and post-border reports to identify invertebrate hitchhikers of potential concern to indigenous flora and fauna.

BACKGROUND

While there are established methods to characterise biosecurity threats to productive sectors, assessing the risks of organisms such as hitchhiker species, to indigenous flora and fauna is difficult. Hitchhikers are species that are carried by or with a commodity, but are not pests of that commodity. Such species may pose threats to indigenous terrestrial ecosystems and as such their potential impacts should be assessed. The objective of this study was to address this knowledge deficiency and examine existing data to identify invertebrate hitchhikers of potential concern to indigenous flora and fauna.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

Over 45 international databases were reviewed and species that have demonstrated impacts on indigenous terrestrial ecosystems were identified. Those species were cross referenced with a synthesised MAF database that records interceptions of exotic invertebrate species at the New Zealand border. The cross referencing was carried out to identify highly invasive invertebrates that threaten New Zealand. Impact assessments of selected species on New Zealand’s indigenous flora and fauna were undertaken.

Outcomes:

From the review of relevant listings of internationally known invasive invertebrates, approximately 130 invertebrate species were found to be of significance in this study.

On cross referencing with the MAF interception database, some 40 species and about 30 genera (covering almost 80 species) were found to have been intercepted by MAF inspectors. Approximately 120 of the original 130 species have not been intercepted at New Zealand’s border. The database was also sorted to create a list of the most intercepted species. In consultation with MAF, 12 invasive invertebrate species were selected for further assessment. Detailed analysis was carried out on each of these 12 species to assess their potential impacts on New Zealand’s indigenous flora and fauna.

Information gaps in MAF’s interception database were determined and recommendations were made to improve data quality. The species identified for detailed impact assessments were:

1. Asian gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar)

2. Cotton or melon aphid (Aphis gossypii)

3. Cockerell scale (Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli)

4. Fijian cane root grub (Adoretus versutus)

5. Cape honeybee (Apis mellifera capensis)

6. Fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea)

7. Red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta)

8. Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica)

9. Giant African snail (Achatina fulica)

10. Western yellow jacket (Vespula pennsylvanica)

11. Badge huntsman spiders (Neosparassus spp).

12. Parasitic wasp (Cirrospilus vittatus)

Summary:

The goal of this project was to examine the use of exotic invertebrate interceptions and post-border reports to identify invertebrate hitchhiker species of potential concern to indigenous flora and fauna. While the impacts of exotic species on productive systems are straightforward to assess, this study was carried out to develop methodology that would help identify exotic hitchhiker species of most threat to New Zealand’s native terrestrial ecosystems.

Over 45 international databases were reviewed and species with demonstrated impacts on indigenous terrestrial ecosystems elsewhere in the world were identified. Those species were cross referenced with a MAF database that records exotic invertebrate interceptions at the New Zealand border to identify highly invasive invertebrates that threaten New Zealand. Detailed assessments of the impact of a number of selected species on New Zealand’s indigenous flora and fauna were then carried out.

Approximately 130 invertebrate species were identified as highly invasive from a review of relevant listings of internationally known invasive species. When these species were cross referenced with the MAF interception database, 40 species and about 30 genera (covering almost 80 species) were found to have been intercepted at New Zealand’s borders. In consultation with MAF, 12 invasive invertebrate species were selected for further assessment and analysis to assess their potential impacts on New Zealand’s indigenous flora and fauna. Information gaps in MAF’s interception database data were determined and recommendations were made to improve data quality to assist future analyses.

2.8 MBS 340

Programme Title:	Bird haemoparasites
Programme Leader:	Richard Jakob-Hoff
Institution:	Auckland Zoo

SUMMARY

This is the final of three reports to determine New Zealand’s capacity to identify and respond to haemoparasites in native and introduced birds. Building on our previous reports – “Status of Avian Haemoparasites in New Zealand” and a “Review of Avian Haemoparasite Diagnostic Techniques”, this report details the findings of two surveys:

1) a national survey of wildlife veterinarians and medical and veterinary laboratories designed to establish New Zealand’s current diagnostic capability and capacity gaps;and

2) an international survey aimed at locating the diagnostic expertise and techniques currently missing in this country.

BACKGROUND

Of 112 people surveyed nationally, 60 (54%) returned their questionnaires: 30 from the medical diagnostic community, 18 from veterinary pathology and laboratory diagnosticians and 12 from wildlife veterinarians. Key findings were:

• Only 9 people had direct personal experience in the identification of avian haemoparasites - and the type and extent of experience varied considerably.

• All laboratories involved in screening avian blood reported a low case load and a very low number of positive diagnoses.

• Human medical laboratory personnel also reported a generally low case load but compensated by establishing a number of diagnostic reference centres and maintaining active quality control and continuing education programs targeted at haemoparasite identification.

• There was some overlap in the haemoparasites of interest to both veterinary and medical diagnosticians and a desire by several of the latter to increase their knowledge of animal parasites.

• Blood smear examination under the light microscope was still the primary method of diagnosis although some serology and PCR was also used for human malaria.

• Twenty six respondents from around the country agreed to have their names, contact details and experience included in a Register of Haemoparasite Diagnostic Expertise for access by biosecurity authorities.

The seven overseas people surveyed revealed that, between them, they covered the expertise and diagnostic techniques currently lacking in New Zealand. Services offered included assistance with diagnosis, training to up-skill New Zealand diagnosticians and access to libraries of avian haemoparasite slides and other reference materials. This included access to the International Reference Centre for Avian Haematozoa held at Queensland Museum in Brisbane.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

Based on their research, the authors suggest baseline requirements for the maintenance of a national avian haemoparasite diagnostic capability that will enable rapid, accurate identification of any such parasite of concern to New Zealand. Key recommendations, provided under the four headings of Diagnostic Expertise, Diagnostic Laboratories, Information Storage and Retrieval and Organisational Support, are:

• Initially import overseas expertise to up-skill local diagnosticians in a training workshop

• Establish one or two centres of avian haematology expertise

• Establish one or two reference laboratories to develop the biotechnological tests required to avoid delays from shipping biological samples overseas

• Obtain the biological specimens required to validate the serological and molecular diagnostic tests

• Develop the existing “Parabase” and “Takahe” wildlife disease surveillance databases as web-based resources with linkages to other related or relevant databases

• Establish a New Zealand Reference Centre for Avian Haematozoa

• Harness the interest and existing organisational infra-structure of the human diagnostic community by suggesting to the New Zealand Institute of Medical Laboratory Science the establishment of a Comparative Haematology Special Interest Group. This could draw on the individuals on the Register of Haemoparasites Diagnostic Expertise for initial membership

• Ensure adequate long-term fiscal commitment by central government to establish and maintain the diagnostic and organisational infrastructure described above

Noting that no systematic surveillance of avian haemoparasites has occurred in New Zealand for over 50 years, the authors also recommend that a nationally co-ordinated, systematic surveillance program should be implemented as soon as possible and should target both host and vector species.

2.9 MBS 343

Programme Title:	Nucleic acid extraction
Programme Leader:	Dr Gail Timmerman-Vaughan
Institution:	Crop & Food Research

GOAL:

The goal of this programme is to develop nucleic acid extraction protocols and quality control assays to underpin the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and RT-PCR (reverse transcription PCR) assays to detect pathogens in the diverse plants that are imported into or grown in New Zealand.

BACKGROUND

Molecular diagnostic methods, particularly those based on sequence detection using PCR, have tremendous potential to determine the presence of plant pathogens. The research in this programme will permit the increased use of nucleic acid-based diagnostic tests for plant pathogens to supplement and complement existing conventional methods. This programme builds on research conducted at Crop & Food Research on genomes of a wide variety of plants, on development of PCR-based diagnostics and on research on the molecular detection of plant pathogens.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

Plant pathogens have genetic material that consists of either DNA (e.g. fungi, bacteria and some viruses) or RNA (RNA plant viruses, viroids). Therefore, the extraction of RNA and/or DNA of adequate quality and quantity for PCR-based detection systems is a prerequisite for their detection. The range of plant species that is of interest for pathogen detection is very broad, and technical challenges to nucleic acid extraction can arise as a result of the composition of plant tissues, particularly for polysaccharides, phenolics and other secondary metabolites. We have assessed methods for extracting total nucleic acids (T-NA) that contain both DNA and RNA, and for extracting RNA, for members of 32 diverse flowering plant families, represented by more than 57 genera. We have also developed a positive control assay for PCR and RT-PCR based on a conserved chloroplast sequence. The utility of this positive control assay has been demonstrated for both T-NA and RNA extractions derived from this list of diverse plant genera.

Outcomes:

The research in this programme has been successful in developing methods for extracting T-NA and RNA from a diverse range of plant species. T-NA has been extracted from members of 32 diverse botanical families using one of three different methods, and the suitability of these T-NA extractions for use in PCR-based diagnostics has been demonstrated with a number of quality control assessments. RNA has been extracted from the same diverse range of plants using one of two methods, and the quality and quantity of the RNA extracted has been characterised.

Difficulties in obtaining good quality nucleic acid extractions were encountered for some plant genera within the Proteaceae, Rosaceae, Ericaceae, Onagraceae, Theaceae, Myrtaceae, Labiatae, Pittosporaceae and Geraniaceae. These difficulties were largely overcome by applying other extraction methods that operate on different principles. In some cases, however, suitable quality extractions were never obtained (e.g. for vireya Rhododendron, while azalea type Rhododendron was extracted successfully). A positive control assay that is universally applicable across the angiosperms (and possibly across wider botanical groupings) was developed, and applied in both PCR and RT-PCR to characterise the quality of the nucleic acid extraction methods. While development of PCR assays for T-NA and RT-PCR assays for RNA extractions was straightforward, considerable optimisation was undertaken to attempt to develop RT-PCR assays that reliably amplify the processed RNA transcript sequences from T-NA. A particularly valuable characteristic of the quality control assay we have developed is that different sized products are produced from genomic DNA versus processed RNA transcripts, enabling T-NA and RNA extracts to be assessed in order to determine whether they contain RNA and/or DNA.

Summary:

Molecular detection of nucleic acid sequences to determine the presence of pathogens in plant materials has the advantage of being quick, sensitive, and applicable to difficult problems. It also complements conventional pathogen detection methods. The research in this programme has developed nucleic acid extraction protocols and a positive control PCR assay that can underpin DNA and RNA sequence-based pathogen detection in the wide range of plants that are imported into or grown in New Zealand. A number of methods to isolate T-NA and RNA have been applied in order to overcome the technical barriers to nucleic acid extraction that can be encountered in plant species, such as the presence of polysaccharides, phenolics and other secondary metabolites. The positive control PCR assay has been developed and optimal conditions established for amplifying PCR products from T-NA and RT-PCR products from RNA. A Laboratory Manual for the use of molecular diagnostic laboratories has been produced.

PUBLICATIONS

Timmerman-Vaughan, G.M., Pither-Joyce, M. and Clover, G.R.G. (2004). A positive-control PCR assay based on chloroplast ndhB sequences that is applicable to nucleic acid extractions from diverse plant taxa. Plant Molecular Biology Reporter (accepted for publication).

2.10 MBS 344

Programme Title:	Generic detection of Viruses – part 2
Programme Leader:	Dr Mike Pearson
Institution:	Auckland University

SUMMARY

To develop a PCR detection system using broad-spectrum or “universal” primers for plant viruses of quarantine importance to NZ.

BACKGROUND

Primers designed to sequences of conserved regions within a virus genome are able to amplify all members of a group. Once amplified, the product may be sequenced to identify the species of virus present. Generic primers have already been designed for a number of virus groups. In some cases these primers work well but in other cases they may not be reliable enough for routine diagnostic work.

Improved primers will assist in detecting viruses of quarantine importance and discriminating between those and viruses already present in New Zealand. This, in turn, will greatly assist MAF Biosecurity in meeting its obligations under the Biosecurity Act 1993 and Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

Literature was checked for published primers for the virus groups of interest.

All relevant sequences were downloaded from GenBank and alignments were made for individual genes. Published primer sequences were checked to determine whether they could be optimized. Relevant viral sequences were analysed to determine whether there were alternative conserved regions and if so new primers were designed. Where consensus sequences could not be identified for all sequences within a genus the possibility of using several primer sets combined in a multiplex PCR was considered. Existing and new primers were tested against representative viruses from the genus of interest.

Outcomes:

Potential primers have been designed for the following virus genera: Closterovirus, Crinivirus, Ampelovirus, Nepovirus, Fabavirus, Luteovirus, Polerivirus, Enamovirus, Tospovirus, Tobamovirus Tobravirus.

Following preliminary testing the following primers show the greatest promise and should be further evaluated: Luteovirus, Polerivirus, Enamovirus, Tospovirus, Tobravirus

Summary:

Table 1. Summary of plant virus primer work 2002-2004

Virus Genus	1o Lit search	Lit eval	Sequ align	Primer design	Primer test	Comments
Closterovirus	X	X	X	X	X	Initial evaluation not promising but primers retested in phase 2 using modifications suggested by Dovas et al., 2003
Crinivirus	X	X	X	X	X
Ampelovirus	X	X	X	X	X
Nepovirus	X	X	X	X	X	1st design priority for phase 2
Fabavirus	X	X	X	X	X	1st design priority for phase 2
Luteovirus	X	X	X	X	X
Polerovirus	X	X	X	X	X
Enamovirus	X	X	X	X	X
Begomovirus	X					3rd design priority for phase 2
Tospovirus	X	X	X	X	X	To be completed in phase 2
Furovirus	X	X	X
Pecluvirus	X	X	X
Pomovirus	X	X	X
Potexvirus	X
Tobamovirus	X	X	X	X	X	2nd design priority for phase 2
Tobravirus	X	X	X	X	X	To be completed in phase 2
X = completed IP = in progress X highlight = phase 2 of project

PUBLICATIONS

The results of the work on tobraviruses, tospoviruses and luteoviriuses will be published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal, but some additional optimization work will be required before this can be done. Preliminary discussions with Gerard Clover (MAF BA) have been held regarding this and we have agreed to start with the tobraviruses.

2.11 MBS 345

Programme Title:	Veterinary sentinel project (03/04)
Programme Leader:	Dr Lachlan McIntyre
Institution:	Massey University

SUMMARY

VetPAD is a term coined for both Veterinary Practitioner Animal Disease surveillance, and software developed to make this surveillance workable in practice. This report discusses the progress made in developing the VetPAD software, adjusting it to ensure it is suitable for use in a veterinary practitioner disease surveillance network, and trialling it in a number of practices. In MAF project MBS-327 (Use of veterinary practices to define baseline patterns of animal disease for national animal health surveillance), it was shown that when compared with either farmer or laboratory-based surveillance systems

• veterinary practitioners have very high rates of on-farm contact with dairy clients;

• the range of disease syndromes seen provides a suitable spectrum for a clinical surveillance strategy; and

• veterinary practitioners had the best opportunity for recording both typical and novel disease patterns.

Various aspects of that study were supported by an independent study by Black et al. who found generally similar frequencies of practitioner visits and disease syndrome occurrence. Another major finding of our project was that diagnoses made by practitioners needed to be recorded more precisely and uniformly if they are to be a fully effective source of informative surveillance data. Hence a decision was made to undertake a second project to develop software which would make this possible. In MAF project MBS-327, an initial version of the VetPAD software was written and tested within the Massey University large animal teaching practice. Concurrent demonstrations to clinical practitioners elicited considerable enthusiasm for adoption of the software.

In this third project, we have provided seven veterinary practitioners of widely varying computer competence with the VetPAD software and an iPAQ h1930 Pocket PC to run the software. This project was designed to teach practitioners how to use the software, and to support them through their early attempts to apply the approach. At the same time, in conjunction with representatives of the MAF Biosecurity Authority we also refined the diagnostic coding which will be used for reporting to MAF. In another component of the project we developed the capability for data exchange between VetPAD and a commercial veterinary practice management program and for extraction of export files. Issues associated with this are discussed in detail.

BACKGROUND

All seven veterinary practitioners who tried the VetPAD software considered the general direction of the project was appropriate and supported what we were attempting to achieve. Six of the seven practitioners found they were able to use the software and record their billing information (a prerequisite to practitioner uptake) to a varying extent while recording animal disease surveillance information without additional effort. Issues with software usage which arose during the beta testing were corrected or managed as appropriate. Overall, six of the seven are keen to continue their involvement with the development of the VetPAD surveillance system including continued use of the software in a commercial environment. The VetPAD software has matured sufficiently to use as a veterinary clinical practice data capture tool, and there is scope for a range of further enhancements. For example, it could readily be adapted for use as an emergency response tool.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

Terms and abbreviations used

CSV: Comma Separated Values: A standard data exchange format. Will automatically open in MS Excel and can also be opened in text editors.

iPAQ: A brand name of handheld computer made by Hewlett Packard Company. There are multiple different models to choose from.

IVS: Index of Veterinary Specialities: A commercial database containing detailed information on New Zealand registered veterinary medicines. The book version is popular with veterinarians in practice as it provides product-specific information in a readily accessible format. In conjunction with this project, we have developed an electronic version for the Pocket PC, the only such product available in Australasia.

NADIS: National Animal Disease Information Service. A private organisation collecting clinical diagnosis data from approximately one hundred private veterinary practitioners and five veterinary schools in Great Britain.

Pocket PC device: An electronic device capable of running the Microsoft Windows Pocket PC operating system. Examples include Hewlett Packard's iPAQ range of handheld computers.

SQL: Structured Query Language. A programming language suitable for sorting and extracting data in appropriate databases.

VetPAD: A computer program for collecting and processing records of veterinary consultations, written to run on the Windows Pocket PC operating system. The term is also used in a more generic way to describe the Veterinary Practitioner Animal Disease surveillance system. The actual meaning is taken from the context.

VetPAD client: A Microsoft Access 97 database, where appointments are logged and visit data is stored on a desktop PC. Synchronises with VetPAD running on the Windows Pocket PC operating system. Now replaced by VetPAD Office.

VetPAD Office: A completely new version of VetPAD client, written in C++. VetPAD Office has multiple enhancements including those which allow users to have better control over various aspects of the recording of data, and data export capability which allows data exchange with other software systems such as VPM.

VPM: Vision Computing's Veterinary Practice Manager software.

Windows Pocket PC: An operating system produced by Microsoft to approximately emulate the Windows operating system. It is designed to run on handheld computers and other similar sized devices such as mobile phones.

XML: Extensible Markup Language. A human and machine readable, structured information transfer language with internationally agreed standards.

INTRODUCTION

Animal disease surveillance has achieved increased prominence in recent years, and there is widespread interest in developing new methods of detecting changes in disease patterns. This has been driven globally by catastrophic animal disease outbreaks in various parts of the world, such as BSE, FMD, classical swine fever, avian influenza and Nipah virus. A growing number of new human diseases have been found to be of animal origin, such as SARS, avian influenza, variant CJD and AIDS. It is crucially important to detect new diseases early, and in trading countries such as New Zealand it is equally essential to provide evidence that the country remains free of a range of serious diseases.

Traditionally the role of veterinary practitioners in animal health surveillance has been as a mechanism for laboratories to gather samples, which can then contribute to national surveillance in the form of a laboratory diagnosis. However, there have been substantial changes in submission patterns since the former state-funded national laboratory network became a much smaller privately owned network with substantial user charges. The nature and magnitude of current veterinary clinic submissions to animal health laboratories was not, however, well documented.

In recent years a new focus has developed on the clinical diagnosis as a source of surveillance data, as distinct from the samples a clinician may collect and submit to the laboratory. Probably the earliest example of routine veterinary clinical diagnosis data collection is the NADIS group in the UK, led by Mike Howe. They have stored data going back to Jan 1997. Since 2001, several groups ((1, 2) , (3) , (4) ) have attempted to gather data in a variety of ways, including practice surveys, web-based reporting systems and mobile phone based systems. Until recently no one has attempted to quantify and validate veterinary clinical diagnoses as source of surveillance data. We ((5) ) achieved this for a limited number of dairy farms, veterinary practices and animal health laboratories and found a distinct hierarchy in reported disease occurrences. This showed that dairy veterinarians recorded, on average, 5.1 cases of disease per 1000 cow months at risk, compared with commercial veterinary laboratories (which recorded 0.58 cases of disease per 1000 cow months at risk) and dairy farmers (who recorded 14.1 cases of disease per 1000 cow months at risk). The farmer records were heavily biased towards mastitis and lameness, and laboratory records contained relatively few disease diagnoses. The range of diagnoses made by veterinary practitioners was far more comprehensive, but also featured a high (22%) proportion of vague or incomplete diagnostic findings. These records were manually captured retrospectively from the billing records of the collaborating veterinary practices. Because there was no standardisation or quality control of diagnostic recording, an ongoing surveillance system could not use retrospective extraction of clinic records.

A linked attempt to electronically extract clinical practitioner billing records from practice software in order to "harvest" animal disease diagnoses across several species failed because of the multitude of versions of veterinary practice management software used in the selected practitioner group and the inability of some of these to export data.

In response to the need to capture veterinary clinical diagnoses in a robust and sustainable manner, the EpiCentre has written software to allow efficient structured collection of this data, transfer of billing records to the practice accounting software, and export of surveillance data. VetPAD is the handheld computer component, VetPAD Office runs on a desktop computer in the clinic office, and a third component transfers data between the two. Prior to field testing the VetPAD software with private veterinary practitioners, the software was used within the Farm Service clinic at Massey University Veterinary Teaching Hospital, for several months in a limited and informal manner. No major issues were detected during this time.

In the current stage of the project we have carried the concept of veterinary practitioner surveillance forward by refinement of various aspects of the process, and successful testing of it in private veterinary practices. These are detailed in the contractual milestones (aims) listed below.

Current project aims (milestones):

1. Refine VetPAD disease codes in conjunction with MAF.

2. Incorporate VetPAD disease codes into Veterinary Practice Manager

3. Recruitment and consultation with participating practices. Training of participating veterinarians, demonstrate and implement VetPAD on a handheld device. Revisit and review of VetPAD usage and issues arising.

4. Liaison with Veterinary Association leaders.

5. Final report to summarise lessons learned and issues arising.

2.12 MBS 347

Programme Title:	Steam sterilisation of peat
Programme Leader:	Lian-Heng Cheah
Institution:	Crop & Food CRI

RESEARCH PROGRAMME NOT YET COMPLETED AND REPORTED AT TIME OF THE PREPARATION OF THIS PUBLICATION. THIS WILL BE REPORTED IN NEXT RESEARCH RESULTS PUBLICATION.

Linked to MBS 330

3. Promoting Industry & Rural Community Performance Category

3.1 ICP 441

Programme Title:	Rural – Urban rating differentials
Programme Leader:	Stuart Ford
Institution:	Agribusiness Group

SUMMARY

Carry out an independent study to determine whether local government rating systems create a rural to urban subsidy and, if they do, the value of that subsidy.

BACKGROUND

We believe that the characterisation of any transfer of wealth between the rural and urban sector in this context as a “subsidy” only occurs where it can be shown that an easily defined benefit mix is not reflected in the rates paid. In this way one sector can be seen to be paying an inequitable share of the cost of a service to the degree that their payment reduces the cost that should be paid by the other party. We have examined the issue in the context of whether the rate burden was equitable in terms of costs for all parties reflecting the degree of benefits gained. However, this is further complicated by the fact that Local Government rates are a tax, not a fee for service. Although some rates take the form of a fee for service there is no tight requirement for the charge to meet the level of service provided.

Although ratepayers should have an expectation that rating systems are equitable in terms of sharing the burden of costs there should not be an expectation that the sharing is equitable in that it exactly meets the level of benefit gained. Rating mechanisms and tools are chosen and modified by councils to achieve their view of social equity. This does not mean that there is absolute equity between all individuals but rather equity across the District as a whole and between sectors.

The Local Government Act 2002 obliges councils to undergo a three-step process in setting rates that first involves the Identification of Activities, and then considers a wide range of Funding Sources and Rating Mechanisms and then modifies their choice on Consideration of the Impact on Wellbeing. It is our view that the act offers councils the opportunity to greatly improve the equitable distribution of rates.

The Councils examined in this study were at various stages of the review process of the requirements and opportunities of the new act. There was a wide range of choice of mechanisms and tools used, with most councils expecting to continue the process over the next few years. We would expect that as that process continues there will be further changes in rating systems used that will provide greater equity between ratepayers. It should be noted that some councils have deliberately chosen to soften or stage the impact of changes to rating systems on individual sectors by the adoption of differentials that avoid large changes in rates bills from year to year.

Some councils have yet to adopt remissions policies that give them the option to remit inequitable rate burdens for individuals that are disadvantaged by the rating system.

CONCLUSIONS

The conclusions that we have made as a result of the research reported in the following sections are:

Council service types

We can divide the services provided and funded by council into three types according to the nature of the benefits of the services:

• General with no Definable Benefit

Those that are obviously general in nature with no definable benefit to particular groups. These are typically funded by some form of general rate. While it may be argued that they should be more appropriately funded from a Universal Annual Charges (UAC), the funding of these services is a pure tax, and the choice of tax regime is up to the Council. We do not believe that a genuine rural-urban subsidy exists in respect of these services.

• Benefit Specific

Those that are obviously of benefit to specific individuals or groups. Examples of this include water and sewerage services. These are usually funded from direct charges or targeted rates, and where this occurs no cross subsidy was identified. However, there were a surprising number of core services in this category, such as storm water, which were funded from general rate. We identified a clear cross subsidy existing with these services where they were not funded as a targeted rate.

• Benefit relates to Use, Access or Availability

Those where a service is well defined, but where the benefits can be argued to relate to either use, access or availability. Examples include libraries, parks, public toilets, etc. We found a variety of means of charging for these types of services. In some cases the mechanism chosen did not appear to reflect any particular means of addressing benefit, and here we found cross subsidies to occur. In other cases councils were making genuine attempts to charge fairly and transparently. We believe greater consistency in identifying benefits and charging accordingly would improve matters in charging for this type of service.

The issue of cross subsidy, as a proportion of total general rate take, was analysed for the case study areas. They found that:

• Core Business / Level of Service

For many of the instances of cross subsidy referred to us, the area of concern was fundamentally over whether activities were core business for the Council or whether the level of service proposed was appropriate, rather than the relative burden of rate paid.

• Level of Analysis

Few councils presented comprehensive analysis of the distribution of benefits of rates and transparent explanation of their funding policy. This meant that rating mechanism choice was, or appeared to be, arbitrary rather than based on comprehensive analysis.

The Local Government Rating Act 2002 limits the total amount of funding that councils can gain from UAC to 30% of their rate take (excluding some services). Some Councils were bound by this restriction while others chose to set the UAC at below the 30% limit. It appears that the inability or unwillingness to fully recover the costs of services that are best funded through UAC is forcing councils to fund these services through a general rate. This appears to be one of the greatest causes of inequity in rates identified in this study.

Councils are limited in their choice of rating units to fund general rates to measures of the rateable value of land. This is effectively a property tax that is progressive in that it assumes that some increasing measure of the value of land is an indication of wealth or ability to pay. Therefore the greater the value of land the greater the proportion of the rates share paid. Farming businesses tend to be “asset rich but cash poor” compared to the majority of urban businesses or residents and in their case the connection between the rateable value of the land and ability to pay may be poor. This means that rate burdens are a higher proportion of profit made (or disposable cash) than for their urban counterparts.

Some councils adopt differentials or choose mechanisms that increase rural rate liability in an effort to compensate for poverty, hardship or deprivation in urban areas.

• The impact of the use of General Rate

We identified areas of rating policy in all case studies where services were funded through general rates that meant that farming businesses appeared to pay a higher share of the cost than the perceived benefits of that service.

• Farms as Commercial and Residential

One complicating factor is that of farming businesses not only being a commercial operation but also providing at least one, but normally multiple, residences. This makes direct comparison of the quantum of rates paid between urban and rural ratepayers difficult to draw firm conclusions from.

• Equity Comparison Variability

There appears to be as much variation in equity between groups in the rural sector as there are inequities between rural and urban ratepayers. In some instances we found inequities that could be considered to be in favour of the rural sector. This depended greatly on the mix of tools and mechanisms adopted by Councils.

For many of the services provided by councils it is difficult (if not impossible) to quantify the costs and benefits to different rate payers. Therefore it is not possible to determine different cost / benefit ratios for individual ratepayers. If these ratios cannot be determined it is not possible to compare the level of equity on the basis of the costs and benefits received.

Our overall conclusion is that there are many instances where it would appear that there are inequities between urban and rural ratepayers in terms of the share of rates paid, just as there are instances of inequities going the other way and within urban and rural sectors. We cannot draw a conclusion of universal subsidy from rural to urban ratepayers.

Some of these inequities are as a result of the constraints on the use of mechanisms and tools available to councils, some are as a result of a failure to accurately match costs and benefits while some are conscious choices made by councils in setting a tax on land designed to target wealth as measured by the rateable value of land.

3.2 ICP 442

Programme Title:	Lifestyle blocks
Programme Leader:	Don Scott
Institution:	AgriQuality

SUMMARY

There were three broad goals:

First, to try and to find out how many lifestyle blocks there are New Zealand and how much land is involved, to investigate the rate of creation of new lifestyle blocks and find out how long lifestyle block owners typically stayed on their properties.

Second, to investigate the coverage and accuracy of three potential national land-based registries that could be used for developing a frame of lifestyle and smallholder block owners.

Third, to characterise lifestyle block owners and smallholders in terms of their land use and knowledge of biosecurity and environmental issues.

BACKGROUND

There is a perception that lifestyle blocks are becoming more and more popular, perhaps as relatively affluent families attempt to escape the “urban jungle” and provide their families with more space and an appreciation for nature and rural life, albeit on a scale smaller than that of their commercial farming neighbours. This trend has seen much productive farmland in close proximity to major urban centres progressively subdivided into smaller blocks and sold for premium land prices. Several district and city councils have moved to curb the loss of productive farmland by instigating by-laws that specify the conditions under which subdivisions are permitted.

There has been some research over the last two decades on smallholdings (properties up to 20 or 35 hectares in size) and smallholders (people living on these properties). A number of topics have been examined including planning issues, economic performance, the needs for services, and general descriptive work. However, our knowledge of smallfarmers and lifestylers is limited by a lack of national survey data. With increasing numbers there is awareness that there may be small but significant levels of production. There are also questions about the biosecurity and environmental awareness of smallholders.

APPROACH

• Analyse information on lifestyle blocks in the Valuation Roll and AgriBase.

• Conduct a ground-truthing exercise to assess the level of spatial completeness and accuracy (pertaining to smallholdings) of the Land Information Core Record System, the Valuation Roll and AgriBase.

• Conduct a postal questionnaire on a random sample of smallholders.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

• Quantify the number of lifestyle blocks in New Zealand and the amount of land involved.

• Assess available land-based registries as to their coverage and accuracy of information on lifestyle blocks.

• Investigate land use on smallholdings.

• Assess smallholder awareness of biosecurity and environmental issues.

Outcomes:

• There were 139,868 lifestyle block assessments in the Valuation Roll, totalling over 753,020 ha. The mean block size was 5.53 ha (median = 2.7, range 0.0006 - 955.7 ha).

• There were 22,687 farms with a lifestyle farm type (LIF) in AgriBase. Mean size was 4.97 ha (median = 3.8, range 0.01 – 603.1 ha). In all, AgriBase had some 60,213 properties either categorized as LIF or <= 35 ha, involving 539,506 ha of land.

• There are approximately 6,802 new lifestyle blocks registered in the Valuation Roll per year. This equates to just over 37,600 ha per year being converted to lifestyle blocks.

• There are different types of smallholders that have different characteristics and lesser or greater degrees of orientation towards agricultural production.

• Many smallholders are engaged in agricultural production but in general this production does not solely support their households.

• Smallholders act responsibly in the control of Tb, but some kill and consume their own animals in an unregulated manner.

• Almost all smallholders intend to plant trees for landscaping or commercial purposes.

• Smallholders do not voluntarily engage in environmental monitoring and environmentally friendly practices to the same extent as other farmers and growers.

• The use of, and intentions to use, organic methods are not as prevalent as that of other farmers and growers.

• Smallholders value the merits of country life including peace and quiet and clean air, and are involved in country living through association with rural organisations.

• Smallholders are, in general, engaged in the management of diseases pests and weeds and are aware of biosecurity issues and practice. Smallholders would, in general, take appropriate action to alert authorities regarding new exotic diseases, pests or weeds.

Summary:

• Concerns were regarding conversion of peri-urban farm land to lifestyle blocks.

• Questions were raised concerning the contribution of smallholders to national agricultural production.

• A need to assess smallholders’ thinking about biosecurity and environmental issues was identified.

3.3 ICP 560

Programme Title:	Skills assessment
Programme Leader:	Michael Mills
Institution:	Martin Jenkins and Associates

SUMMARY

To improve knowledge and understanding of the demand-side of the labour market in order to improve MAF’s capability both to advise on labour and skills issues, and to engage with other officials on these topics.

BACKGROUND

This study has taken place at a time of historically low unemployment and concerns about skill shortages. This project has been undertaken to identify and assess any potential opportunities or strategies for: (a) addressing any current or future expected mismatches between labour demand and supply; and (b) improving opportunities for different demographic groups to participate in the sector labour markets, especially in higher skilled jobs. The research would also provide a basis to identify and prioritise further research and policy activities related to demand-side labour market issues including the identification of any particular issues that might be constraining sector growth.

APPROACH

The methodology used for this research was analysis of statistics from the Census and Business Demographic Statistics from Statistics New Zealand and qualitative discussions with employers and a range of industry experts. These discussions were conducted during visits to Nelson, Hawkes Bay, Waikato, Auckland, and Wellington.

Outcomes:

The research found that many firms and industries have made increased efforts to recruit staff as the labour market has tightened. However, during our interviews reports were also received of recruitment difficulties and poor employment practices. It is not possible to quantify the prevalence of these practices from the available information. The researchers generally found that employers were positive and prepared to talk with them; however, some did not choose to take part.

Statistical analysis shows that the industries surveyed are disproportionate employers of the low- or unqualified, of Maori, and in many cases, of young men. The researchers suggest that Government needs to carefully consider the impact of any interventions around skill and labour shortages and recruitment difficulties, as they can distort the longer-term choices firms face when confronted with a shortage of labour.

The researchers also found that timeliness was a vital criterion in prioritising future work on these issues, particularly if an impact is wanted on the next seasonal labour demand peak. Timing also matters because government can risk worsening the effects of the business cycle if its interventions do not have an effect until after unemployment begins to rise again. The upcoming proposed Food and Beverage Sector Engagement also means that there are time pressures within government. A number of short-term and longer-term potential areas for futher work by MAF were identified. The researchers suggest that enforcement, labour brokerage, improving information and leadership and increasing participation offer the most potential for short-term solutions to perceived shortages.

Summary:

The goal of this research was to improve knowledge and understanding of the demand side of the labour market in order to improve MAF’s capability. The context is one of low unemployment and pressure around reported skill or labour shortages. The methodology was a combination of statistical analysis and qualitative discussions with selected employers and industry experts.

The research found that many firms and industries have made increased efforts to recruit staff as the labour market has tightened. However, reports were also received of recruitment difficulties and poor employment practices during our interviews. Statistical analysis shows that these industries are disproportionate employers of the low- or unqualified, of Maori, and in many cases, of young men. The researchers suggest that Government needs to carefully consider the impact of any interventions around skill and labour shortages and recruitment difficulties, as they can distort the longer-term choices firms face when confronted with a shortage of labour.

PUBLICATIONS

Respondents took part in interviews on the basis that this research did not produce a publication, but an internal report for the use of MAF staff. This report was titled ‘Labour demand in selected food sectors’, Martin, Jenkins and Associates, October 2004.

4. Facilitating Resource Management Category

4.1 FRM 220

Programme Title:	Stock unit system
Programme Leader:	Prof Keith Woodford
Institution:	Lincoln University

SUMMARY

The purpose of this research has been to review the stock unit system and to recommend any changes that are needed.

BACKGROUND

The current system of stock units is based on the ewe equivalent system devised by Coop in 1965. He estimated the annual energy requirements of various classes of stock and related these to the base of a ‘standard ewe’. Subsequently the system has been expanded to take account of deer and goats, and there have been modifications by some users in regard to specific classes of animals.

The stock unit system is an inherently simple system that allows the amount of feed consumed per annum by different classes of animal to be compared, and for the total feed consumed by the various stock classes to be aggregated on a whole–farm basis.

A fundamental assumption of the stock unit system is that energy is the most important nutrient for grazing animals. Hence, animal feed requirements are measured in terms of energy.

The stock unit system is widely used for diverse purposes. These include macro-monitoring at the level of the nation, industry, region and farm class, together with widespread use at the level of the farm and individual enterprise for monitoring, analysis, benchmarking, and planning. Users include farmers, farm consultants, policy analysts, agricultural economists, farm management and animal science educators, extension organisations, land valuers and the real estate industry.

The stock unit system has served and continues to serve a useful purpose. However, there is also considerable dissatisfaction amongst users in regard to accuracy and limitations of the system. There are several major weaknesses in the system that can be remedied.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

In assessing what changes should be made to the system there is a need to give consideration to the level of system accuracy that is required. Unfortunately there is no simple answer to this question as it is user-dependent. The guiding principles that have been used in this project are that:

(a) the scientific underpinnings should be as accurate as possible;

(b) outcomes need to have validity in that they do not lead to incorrect decisions or incorrect conclusions;

(c) the system has to be readily understood by users.

Some users have adjusted per head stock unit values according to the size and productivity of the ewes but other users have retained the concept that one ewe equals one stock unit. For classes of stock other than ewes it has not been normal to adjust stock unit values according to size and productivity of the animals. Failure to adjust for size and productivity leads to major anomalies in relation to between-farm comparisons and the benchmarking of financial returns per stock unit. These failures also lead to anomalies when gross margins are compared on a stock unit basis.

Over time there has been a trend for increasing size and performance in both sheep and cattle. Also, farming systems are considerably more diverse than when the current stock unit system was initially developed. These issues lead to major anomalies in measuring trends that are particularly important at the national level.

Some animal classes such as store lambs and some classes of cattle are either missing or under-represented at the usual inventory date of 30 June. On many individual farms these missing and under-represented groups make a major contribution to the ‘correct’ stock unit value and need to be included. Similarly, some other classes are over valued in situations where a proportion is sold soon after the inventory date.

The scientific approach to measuring feed requirements has become more sophisticated since the original calculations of Coop. However, the estimates obtained in the current research are broadly similar to those obtained by Coop for most classes of sheep and cattle of a stated size, productivity level and farming system. Accordingly, the need to revise the stock unit system is driven more by the changes in animal size, animal performance and farming systems, and a recognition that the current system does not address satisfactorily the level of diversity that exists in regard to these variables, rather than by new scientific knowledge in relation to the fundamental energy requirements of the species and classes of animal. Nevertheless, improved scientific knowledge can make a useful contribution to the stock unit revision process.

There are some differences between the estimates of feed requirements obtained from the current research and those made by some users since Coop’s original estimates. The Cornforth and Sinclair (1984) stock unit modifications appear to overestimate the feed cost of increased lambing percentage relative to the impact of changing ewe size. The figures of Geenty and Rattray (1987) in ‘Livestock Feeding on Pasture” (Nicol 1987), which are widely used in feed planning although seldom used directly in stock unit analyses, appear to underestimate the maintenance energy requirements of cattle, and tend to overestimate energy requirements of sheep. The authors of these revised systems have not made their methodology and assumptions explicit.

There is a need for agreement to be reached by the various parties with relevant scientific expertise (Lincoln University, Massey University and AgReseach) as to the scientific procedures that will in future be used to calculate stock unit values. It is recommended that the SCA* (1990) procedures be used for sheep, cattle, and deer.

(*SCA. 1990. Feeding standards for Australian livestock – Ruminants. Standing Committee on Agriculture, Ruminants Subcommittee, CSIRO, East Melbourne, Australia.)

The SCA procedures do not by themselves lead directly to new stock unit values. Rather, they provide an analytical framework as to what issues should be considered in the calculations and how each of these issues can be incorporated. Operationalising the procedures requires specific default values to be determined for particular situations. Examples are mature liveweight (which influences the protein-to-fat ratio of tissue and hence the energy cost of gain) and the energy costs of the grazing environment (such as distance walked per day in different environments). As with the overall procedures, agreement on these default values needs to be obtained by experts in organisations such as Lincoln University, Massey University and AgResearch. Where possible, the agreed figures should be used not only for stock unit calculations but also for other computations relating to feed planning and feed use efficiency.

It is recommended that the concept of a stock unit should be based on a defined level of metabolisable energy (ME). A revised stock unit of 6000MJ ME would be of similar energetic value to the original ewe equivalent (stock unit) value of Coop. However, once account is taken of current animal liveweights, performance levels and farming systems, this will result in revised total stock unit numbers on most farms that are considerably different to estimates currently obtained. An alternative would be to use units of 1GJ ME (i.e. 1000MJ) and a totally different nomenclature such as ‘pastoral feed units’.

It is recommended that all stock unit calculations at the level of the individual enterprise and farm take into account animal size, performance level and farming system. Failure to do so inevitably leads to misleading values.

For sheep and cattle breeding systems the three most important variables to incorporate within stock unit calculations are maternal liveweight, weaning percentage and weaning weight of progeny. Maternal liveweight is the most important of these figures by a factor of two to three. Progeny weaning weight is of similar importance to weaning percentage but to date has not been included as a variable within stock unit systems.

For sheep and cattle finishing systems the three most important variables to incorporate within stock unit calculations are average liveweight, liveweight gain and length of the finishing period. The most important of these is length of the finishing period.

For deer breeding systems the most important issue is the genotype of the females. The energy requirements of different finishing systems are broadly similar for the different genotypes because of target slaughter weights that are similar for all genotypes and the consequent interaction between genotype and age of slaughter.

There are particular challenges associated with national level calculations. These challenges arise from the lack of data at the national level on average animal liveweight, performance level and farming system, and are exacerbated by some June 30 inventory issues whereby some animal classes such as store lambs are not present.

At the national level the main use of stock units is to measure trends within pastoral farming. Accordingly, there is a need for accurate estimates of changes in animal productivity and changes in average animal liveweights. Carcass weight data can be used as proxies for liveweight, and estimates of calving and lambing percentages are available from Department of Statistics and MWI Economic Service. There is very limited and perhaps zero validity in annual trend estimates of national stock units that ignore the annual trends in animal liveweight and productivity.

At the level of the eight sheep and beef farm classes as defined by MWI Economic Service, any comparisons between farm classes undertaken on a per stock unit basis require stock unit values for the various classes of stock to be defined separately for each class of farm. Accordingly, MWI Economic Service needs to collect sufficient data as part of the Survey to be used as input to the determination of stock unit values appropriate for each class. The key data requirements are the same as for individual farm or enterprise analyses (see above). It may be possible for MWI to generate these estimates based on the expert opinion of its field officers, although objective data would be preferable. Ideally, this would be undertaken on an individual farm basis and then aggregated and averaged for each class. In the absence of separate stock unit values for each class of farm, any comparisons across farm classes have very limited meaning.

Given the recommendations that all enterprise, farm, and farm class calculations take account of liveweight, performance and farming system, plus the requirements at the national level for incorporation of ongoing trends in liveweight and performance, then practitioners will need to have access to either appropriate detailed tables or computer software. Both tables and computer software will need to be developed if the needs of all users are to be met. Development of computer software and detailed tables therefore becomes a key recommendation, but this needs to be preceded by the processes and required agreements outlined.

The recommendations as set out above lead inevitably to a more complex stock unit system than is currently the case. However, the increased complexity and information requirements are essential to establish a revised stock unit system that is valid for both:

(a) the key uses of monitoring, analysis, benchmarking, and planning at the level of individual enterprises and farms; and

(b) macro monitoring at the level of the nation, region and farm class.

There will always be limits to the use of the stock unit system. In particular, any analyses that have major seasonality elements to them, typically related to different seasonal proportionality of feed demand by different classes and/or feed costs that differ markedly between seasons, will require more sophisticated techniques than stock unit analysis if accurate answers are to be obtained.

Summary:

The recommended actions arising from this research are as follows:

Agreement should be sought from the relevant scientific community as to the scientific procedures to be used for calculating a revised system of stock units. The proposed system for sheep, beef and deer would be the procedures as set out in SCA (1990). There is an associated need to reach scientific agreement on the appropriate equation parameters for New Zealand conditions. The recommended equations and parameter values for deer are as estimated by Nicol et al. (2003). The scientific expertise in relation to these issues is found predominantly at Lincoln University, Massey University and AgResearch.

There is a need to test the preference of users for a revised stock unit system based on either a unit of 6000 MJ ME (i.e.6 gigajoules) and known as a ‘revised stock unit’or a unit based on 1000 MJ ME (i.e. 1 gigajoule) and known as a ‘pastoral feed unit’. The most representative group of users is found within the New Zealand Institute of Primary Industry Management.

Once agreement (or at least a level consensus) has been reached on the above then appropriate tables and software need to be developed.

Once tables and software are developed and published then the revised system can be made operational at the farm level. Some training of users would be appropriate.

For time series aggregates at the national level there will be a need for new series to be constructed from the tables and software.

MWI Economic Service should be encouraged to collect liveweight data in conjunction with the Sheep and Beef Farm Survey (possibly for one year only) that can be used to validate subjective estimates as to average liveweights for national level calculations, and hence to anchor trends based on proxy data. An alternative method for generating this information could be through the MAF Farm Monitoring Program.

4.2 FRM 222

Programme Title:	Timber products
Programme Leader:	Ian Page
Institution:	BRANZ

SUMMARY

This report provides data on the potential use of timber in the structure and envelope of Government buildings. The estimated number of Government buildings that could be converted to greater timber use, and the associated carbon emission savings, are in

Table 1.

Table 1 Government buildings potentially redesigned for increased timber use

The numbers in the table allow for a proportion of the forecast large building projects to be converted to greater timber use, considering the type of building, and the typical number of storeys in such buildings. In many of these cases the building cost is expected to be less than for alternative designs using other materials. Assuming there is flow-on to the private sector, it is estimated that the savings in Table 1 can be increased by approximately 100%, giving about 160 eligible Government and private sector buildings per year.

BACKGROUND

Central Government building activity - Recent trends and forecasts

Figure 1 shows the value of central Government building consents in the recent past, and the BRANZ forecasts. Education buildings predominate, followed by health buildings and prisons/defence barracks. Education building work is forecast to peak in 2005 to accommodate the student roll bulge, now moving from primary schools into secondary schools. There is a large health sector building programme underway, which is replacing the infrastructure built in the 1970s and preparing for an expected increase in demand due to an aging population. In the prison sector there is a projected 25% increase in inmates over the next six years, and a large building programme has started.

Figure 1 BRANZ Work activity forecasts

Smaller buildings, below $500,000 in value, commonly use timber framing now, but larger Government buildings are normally built in steel and concrete (see Figure 2). Larger buildings have been suggested as a target for timber promotion programmes. Note that many large buildings already use significant volumes of timber as infill framing between the main frame and for partition walls (non-load bearing walls).

Figure 2 Frame types in Government buildings

Figures 2 and 3 show characteristics of education and health buildings, based on the BRANZ Materials Survey data. The number of buildings over $500,000 in the survey is quite low for health buildings, (20 buildings), whereas it is over 200 for education buildings. Hence, the charts for education are more reliable. Only two returns were obtained for prisons/barracks in the survey over the last 5 years, therefore it has not been possible to include them in the charts. Generally prison buildings are low rise constructed in concrete masonry and tilt slab.

Figure 3 shows the number of storeys by value group. Education buildings are likely to be single storey, up to quite large building values and include halls, performing arts, gyms and administration buildings. Health buildings are more likely to be multi-storey. However, as discussed later, the trend in new hospital design is for low rise, large footprint buildings.

Figure 3 Storeys in Government buildings

The distribution of building consents by value range is shown in Figure 4. Education has a large number of low value consents, typically for one or two classroom additions, and together these smaller projects have a significant percentage of the total value of work. Conversely in the health and prison sectors the projects are typically large in size and if $500,000 is the threshold for the target group then over 85% of the total expenditure is covered by these projects, whereas in education only 60% is covered.

Figure 4 Building consents by value range

Target market

The suggested timber value threshold for the target segments are buildings using $50,000 of timber. Most materials in a building are contained in the structural system (frame and floors), the wall and roof claddings, and the interior linings. Of these components the main potential for timber is the frames. The structural system (roof and wall frames, foundations, and partition walls) is commonly 15% of the building cost, including fit-out and HVAC plant costs. Of this about 45% is the material cost so that $50,000 of timber materials is contained in a building costing $741,000 (=50,000/(0.15x0.45)). Therefore, the previously mentioned threshold of $500,000 is too low and a threshold of $750,000 is suggested.

Discussion and conclusions

The summary in Table 1 indicates that timber framing could substitute for other materials in approximately 80 medium to large new Government buildings per year. How realistic is this? The main barriers are the conservatism of cost, consultants and designers. The evidence suggests that technically timber will perform satisfactorily for many larger Government buildings, and apart from the sustainability benefits, there may well be cost savings compared to concrete and steel alternatives. There is some expertise in large structure design in New Zealand and this would provide a base for expanding the capability of the cost and design professions to undertake more timber buildings. Provided timber structures are given the chance to tender on a similar basis to steel and concrete framed structures then there appear to be few barriers to an increased uptake of timber structures.

Assuming an increased incidence in Government buildings, what would be the flow-on to the private sector? There are potentially more eligible buildings in the private sector but the substitution rates are likely to be lower, mainly because of the conservatism of owners and the pressures on designers to minimise their fees. Even when the take-up rates are reduced by 20%-30% compared to Government buildings, the eligible numbers of buildings are similar to the Government sector.

The report notes that embodied energy savings are small compared to energy used throughout a building’s life. However these savings are still significant, potentially amounting to about 150,000 GJ per year in the public and private sector, and about 60,000 tonnes of carbon emission savings per year.

The draft revision to the Building Act has a clause that includes a requirement to give consideration to sustainability impacts when making changes to the Building Regulations. There are approximately 30 performance clauses in the Regulations and these are each reviewed on a rolling basis every 5 years. The durability, plumbing and energy efficiency clauses have sustainability impacts and are due for revision by 2008, with work to start within a year or two. It is possible that specific performance criteria may be included that would favour timber in preference to other materials.

4.3 FRM 223

Programme Title:	Podocarp – Tawa growth
Programme Leader:	Mark Smale
Institution:	Landcare CRI

SUMMARY

A sample of 179 trees was remeasured in a 120 ha block of upland rimu-beech forest cruised for timber in 1960 in Koranga State Forest, now Koranga Conservation Area, for the Indigenous Forestry Unit of the then Ministry of Forestry.

BACKGROUND

Objectives:

• To estimate the diameter growth rate of tagged trees over 44 yrs for all tagged species (rimu, miro, and tawa).

• To compare data from diameter tape remeasurements with increments measured by increment cores.

• To calculate the volume increment of those species over 44 yrs.

• To estimate mortality of tagged species.

APPROACH

Methods:

• Ten percent (179) of all cruised trees were sampled at 62 predetermined random points. ‘Non areal’ angle-count sampling was carried out around each point.

• A range of site measurements (elevation, aspect, slope, landform index, terrain shape index, exposure index, drainage index, map co-ordinates) were recorded at each point.

• A range of individual tree measurements (tag number, species, mortality status, diameter at breast height (DBH)) was recorded for all trees.

• For live trees, additional individual tree measurements (total tree height, crown depth, crown area, crown position, crown (foliage) density index) were recorded. Two increment cores were taken on opposite sideslopes.

• All competitors, live or dead, > 20 cm DBH within 7 m of each subject tree were recorded (species, DBH, crown position).

Results:

• Of 101 live trees visited at predetermined random points, only 55% had readable tags.

• Mean annual diameter growth rate of remeasured rimu between 1960 and 2004 was about 2.1 mm/yr, and of remeasured miro was 1.9 mm/yr. These estimates are based on only a small subsample of surviving trees and may be biased to an unknown extent.

• Radial growth increment cores consistently underestimated diameter growth in rimu (2.1 mm/yr) compared with diameter tape measurements (2.7 mm/yr); the true value probably lies somewhere between these estimates.

• Diameter growth of miro was successfully reconstructed from radial growth increment cores.

• Mean annual diameter increment of rimu was correlated with crown area (trees with larger crowns grew faster) and aspect (trees on more westerly aspects grew faster). Hierarchical models were used to determine that these two variables in addition to physiography were predictors of diameter increment. The effect of physiography was that trees grew faster in hollows and slower on footslopes, sideslopes, spurs, and spurlines.

• Mean annual diameter increment of miro was negatively correlated with competition from surrounding trees in the canopy. However, the hierarchical model did not identify any of the variables as significant predictors of diameter growth.

• Mean annual merchantable volume increment of rimu between 1960 and 2004 was 0.3 m³/ha/yr, and of miro 0.1 m³/ha/yr.

• Mortality rates in rimu (0.03%/yr) and miro (0.14%/yr) were extremely low. However, because of sampling methodology these are undoubtedly minimal estimates and the true value may be somewhat higher.

Conclusions:

• Variations in the growth rate of individual trees in the study area are likely to reflect biological (crown area, competition), climatic (elevation, aspect), and edaphic (physiography) variation.

• Variations in the mean growth rate of rimu between Koranga and similar altitudes on the Volcanic Plateau may reflect different fertilities of soils derived from different parent materials, but may also reflect climatic differences.

Recommendations:

• Permanent plots need to be revisited and maintained at much shorter intervals than 44 years for robust data to be obtained.

• Despite indistinct ring definition in some species, increment cores provide a valuable means of estimating diameter growth rates where previous diameter measurements are not available.

• Diameter remeasurements provide a standard means of assessing increment, but may be less accurate than is commonly assumed.

• The consistent discrepancy between diameter growth estimates obtained by the two methods in rimu is cause for concern, and requires further investigation.

• Variations in the mean growth rates of rimu and miro between Koranga and the Volcanic Plateau, the long-standing focus of previous research, suggest that existing data from one region cannot necessarily be safely extrapolated to other regions varying widely in topography, climate, and soil.

4.4 FRM 224

Programme Title:	Silver beech growth in Southland
Programme Leader:	Jan Derks
Institution:	TACCRA Consultancy

SUMMARY

Understanding regeneration and growth of silver beech in Southland forests.

BACKGROUND

To determine a post-harvest period over which natural silver beech regeneration can be expected to establish at sufficient density and grow at sufficient rate to result in restoration of forest of similar type and structure to that existing prior to harvest.

To identify/confirm parameters the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF) can apply in administering the provisions of Part IIIA of the Forests Act 1949 relating to:

• failure of natural regeneration at harvest sites

• timing of supplementary planting

• governing timing of coupe harvesting such that where beech is harvested in coupes, regeneration on a previously harvested coupe must have reached a predominant mean height of 4 metres before harvesting of a further coupe can occur adjacent to that previously harvested.

There are two key time components - the time taken for beech regeneration to establish and the time taken to attain 4 metres height. This combined time is a fundamental sustainable forest management planning consideration where coupe harvesting of beech is employed. The combined time is critical in sustainable yield calculations presented in draft Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) Plans where these are made on the basis of an assumed tree age or “rotation” and in operations planning by forest owners, and for MAF in evaluation of draft SFM Plans, review of existing SFM Plans and audits of operations under Annual Logging Plans. An investigation into tree clustering observed in the study area forest type and not typical of other silver beech forest areas is incorporated. Clustering could have indicated potentially beneficial establishment site attributes to be the focus of site treatments during or post-harvest to facilitate natural regeneration, or have indicated sites in which to concentrate supplementary planting, if that is required.

APPROACH

The study area is in the southeastern Longwoods Range area, western Southland. Sites are in silver beech second growth forest regenerated after clear felling in 1922, and currently under sustainable management in accordance with provisions of the Forests Act 1949. Three 30 m x 30 m bounded plots were randomly selected in the designated area. All trees within the plots were individually numbered, measured for diameter at breast height and mapped relative to plot axes. Micro site characteristics of each tree’s rooting zone were classified by elevation and drainage. Number, distance of separation and diameters of all neighbours (within plots and outside plots) to a given tree were recorded. A random sapling/pole sub-sample was taken from within each plot. Stems were felled with discs cut from base and 4 meter height. All trees were then felled and a disc was cut from as close to ground level as possible. A random sample of tree stems from within all plots had discs cut from their trunks at 4 meters above ground. All discs were identified by stem number and aged by ring counting. Radial increment was measured, working inwards from the cambium, recorded in ten-year periods and used to calculate periodic mean annual increment for advance growth trees and regenerated trees. Regeneration infilling of 2003 standing crop trees was assessed from age spread. Micro site type ratios were calculated and compared for tree clusters and linear spatial patterns within sample sites and a horizontal distance-dependent size-ratio competition index was calculated and used in conjunction with mean annual radial increment as a comparison of tree growth on flat and elevated micro sites.

Outcomes:

Estimates of mean regeneration lag time (the difference between mean regenerated tree age and year of clear felling) and mean time for regeneration to attain 4 metres height (difference between establishment age at base and age at 4 metres) in this forest type are 12.8 years each. These are additive and need to be adequately incorporated in sustainable forest management planning and operations planning for this forest type under coupe harvesting. A significant component of the 2003 standing crop (40% of sample site basal area) is comprised of trees present as advance growth at time of logging in 1922 and removal of neighbours increased radial increment on all advance growth stems. Modelling indicates that in coupes where advance growth is severely depleted or eliminated, it could take approximately 7.5 years longer for restoration of stems at a similar density and size to the 2003 crop. No significant difference was found in tree competition or tree growth between elevated and flat sites. For supplementary planting, there is no support for elevated sites presenting better growth potential. Planting should mimic, as far as possible, the observed distribution of stems between flat (60%) and elevated sites (40%).

Summary:

Determination of a post-harvest period over which natural silver beech regeneration can be expected to establish at sufficient density and grow at sufficient rate to result in restoration of forest of similar type and structure was the research goal is in the study area. The southeastern Longwoods Range area; western Southland. The three research sample sites are silver beech second growth forest regenerated after clear felling in 1922, and now under sustainable management in accordance with provisions of the Forests Act 1949. All trees within plots were numbered, measured (diameter at breast height), mapped with reference to plot axes, and had rooting zone micro site characteristics recorded (elevation and drainage). Number, distance of separation and diameter of all neighbour trees (within plots and outside plots) to a given tree were recorded. A random sapling/pole sub-sample was taken from within each plot. All trees and the sapling/pole sample stems were felled with discs cut from base and from 4 meter height for the sapling/pole sample and for a random sample of tree stems. Growth ring counting aged all discs and radial increment was measured inwards from the cambium and recorded in ten-year periods with part-period remainder if required). Micro site type ratios (flat and mounds) were compared for tree clusters and linear spatial patterns and a horizontal distance-dependent size-ratio competition index was used to compare tree growth on flat and elevated micro sites. Estimates of mean regeneration lag time (the difference between mean regenerated tree age and year of clear felling) and mean time for regeneration to attain 4 metres height (difference between establishment age at base and age at 4 metres) in this forest type are 12.8 years each. These are additive in determining coupe harvest felling cycle for this forest type. Advance growth within the current standing crop is being virtually eliminated under the small coupe harvesting regime. This may add approximately 7.5 years to the previous regeneration time of 81 years (to attain similar volume, stem density and stem size to that at 2003). No significant difference was found in tree competition or tree growth between elevated and flat sites. For supplementary planting, there is no support for elevated sites presenting better growth potential.

4.5 FRM 225

Programme Title:	Review ecosystem models
Programme Leader:	Rob Allen
Institution:	Landcare CRI

SUMMARY

The purpose of this project is to develop an ecosystem management basis for New Zealand’s indigenous forests. It summarises the concepts of ecosystem management and outlines the models that operate within the framework of those concepts, and explores how this approach could be applied to indigenous forestry in New Zealand.

BACKGROUND

Forestry practices worldwide are undergoing a significant shift of emphasis away from sustainable timber management, to sustainable ecosystem management. This is a challenging shift in emphasis, and as part of this change, new silvicultural systems are being developed that are based on ecosystem processes rather than an agricultural paradigm of harvesting cycles. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF) is responsible for implementing sustainability requirements under the Forests Act 1949. Currently, sustainability is often perceived and measured in terms of timber production, despite the progress that has been made elsewhere in the world. Wider ecological sustainability and integrated socio-economic objectives need to be more strongly incorporated into indigenous forestry in New Zealand. ‘Ecosystem management’ is a new approach that recognises the complex nature of entire ecosystems, rather than single species or elements, and where the varied demands of society on ecosystems are balanced against the need to maintain complex, viable ecosystems. The United States of America Forest Service adopted the ecosystem management approach to satisfy growing social concerns regarding the impacts of forest management. An ecosystem `management-based approach has yet to be applied in a general way to New Zealand’s indigenous forests managed for timber production.

APPROACH

To review the concept of ecosystem management and related models we searched for articles using the Ovid Current Contents, Ingenta, CAB Abstracts, Science Direct and New Zealand Science databases. The resulting information is summarised in the first part of this report. The second part outlines a pathway and research requirements to progressively implement the concept in indigenous forestry.

Outcomes:

Our synthesis identified a number of goals capturing the essential elements of ecosystem management:

1. Recognise entire ecosystems. An ecosystem perspective includes the soil, the relationships between the soil and vegetation and between the soil and other organisms; the hydrologic cycle, nutrient cycles, and a broad recognition of biodiversity. One component that has been strongly emphasised is that ecosystems are dynamic and cannot be managed using only knowledge of their current status.

2. Integrate ecological knowledge and socio-economic demands. Ecosystem management identifies that humans are inseparable components of ecosystems. Forests are therefore ideally managed to maintain ‘social benefits’. As these benefits are numerous and include both economic and aesthetic benefits, it is unsurprising that there has traditionally been conflict in achieving this ideal.

3. Develop a quantitative basis for management. Data collection and monitoring serve two important functions in ecosystem management. First, an increasing understanding of the ecosystem allows the most appropriate management to be designed and implemented. Second, monitoring illuminates whether the applied management is successfully achieving the desired goals.

4. Modify management approaches towards adaptive ecosystem management. Adaptive ecosystem management integrates ongoing research with decision making, and management approaches are selected based on the best knowledge available. These are then adjusted and reviewed in light of outcomes.

5. Develop new, integrated and co-operative management paradigms. It is widely accepted that adopting an ecosystem management approach will involve a ‘paradigm shift’ and not simply an addition or modification to existing approaches. The integration of many objectives demands that maximum outcomes in any one objective are unlikely, and that trade-offs to obtain optimal outcomes are necessary.

Recommendations:

The concept of ecosystem management provides a direction to indigenous forest management in New Zealand. It is consistent with recommendations in the House of Representatives (2002) review and with the intent of the 1993 provisions of the Forests Act. Specific directions and research identified in this report include:

• determine variability in stand-scale productivity along environmental gradients for key forest types;

• determine harvesting implications using existing data that document the spatial and temporal impacts of background canopy disturbance on compensatory growth and mortality responses of significant tree species;

• characterise the light, nutrient and substrate requirements (including competition with exotic and native plants) for germination and successful tree recruitment of all the major New Zealand tree species;

• determine an input-output nutrient budget for an indigenous forest found on infertile soils (low calcium and phosphorus);

• survey social perceptions and views on indigenous forest management;

• progress models of individual tree growth to give guidelines for the management of mixed-age, mixed-species stands to desired structure and composition;

• document the adaptive management cycle on several of the most established indigenous forestry operations as a basis for understanding the interface between prescriptions and adaptive management; and

• identify goals that can be used to compare the effectiveness of various forms of indigenous forest management in New Zealand.

Summary:

There remain strong consumer and political pressures to improve indigenous forest management. Ecosystem management provides a philosophy and framework for a response to these pressures. This report provides some specifics to a pathway and research needs that will improve indigenous forest management within the framework of ecosystem management. The challenge remains to progressively implement such a pathway within a small and fragmented industry.

PUBLICATIONS

Allen, R.B. 2004. Sustainable indigenous forestry research funding.

Tree Grower 25(1): 37–38.

4.6 FRM 226

Programme Title:	Voluntary codes of practice
Programme Leader:	Lynette Wharfe
Institution:	Agribusiness

SUMMARY

To identify critical success factors for the uptake and effective implementation of Codes of Practice by the agriculture, horticulture and forestry industries.

BACKGROUND

Currently a number of Codes of Practice have been developed for use in the agriculture, horticulture and forestry industries. These are considered to be an appropriate mechanism to address a range of issues facing industries. An understanding of the key drivers and success factors of current programmes will inform and assist the development and review of Codes of Practice in the future. The information will be used to assist MAF Policy to better understand the value and potential applications of Codes of Practice and will be of value for determining future advocacy for this type of voluntary industry management tool.

APPROACH

The project involved the following research:

• A Literature Review was undertaken to assist in the identification of factors influencing adoption, uptake and effectiveness, with a focus on voluntary mechanisms. A search was also conducted to identify Codes of Practice currently in use in New Zealand and to identify the key drivers for their establishment.

• Ten Case Study reviews were undertaken. They were from across agricultural, forestry and horticultural sectors. Some of those selected include Guidelines and a Quality Assurance Programme.

• Three Focus Groups with industry were undertaken, one each in Bay of Plenty, Canterbury and Wellington. The Focus Groups provided an opportunity to explore and clarify issues related to the development and adoption of Codes of Practice with industry representatives in more detail.

The above research was used to identify critical success factors and issues related to the development, implementation and management of codes of practice.

Outcomes:

The project identified a range of factors that contribute to the value and performance of codes of practice, including that:

The code should:

• Contain clear goals and targets;

• Contain credible, concise and unambiguous information;

• Be underpinned by robust science where required;

• Be user-focused;

• Use a two tier approach (a simplified practical version for users, and a more detailed underpinning document) if the material is complex and/or required to be incorporated in regulatory documents;

• Provide clear benefits and respond to a clear and acknowledged need or problem;

• Be set in the context of a programme or package, including training, especially when the code includes complex material;

• Explain where the code ‘fits’ as part of a long term change;

• Clearly identify roles and responsibilities;

• Be well set out, illustrated and formatted; and

• Have a high benefit-cost ratio for users.

Code development should:

• Involve all key stakeholders;

• Be industry driven;

• Have adequate funding and management; and

• Have adequate time to carry out research and consultation.

Implementation of a code should:

• Be achievable – both in cost and in practice;

• Have adequate funding and industry support;

• Provide tools, mechanisms and activities to assist adoption, including adequate information and training;

• Include development of an appropriate management structure;

• Include promotion and information on benefits, including use of role models/ champions; and

• Include monitoring and auditing.

Include incentives for adoption, including peer pressure.

Summary:

This project aimed to identify critical success factors for the uptake and effective implementation of Codes of Practice by the agriculture, horticulture and forestry industries. The literature and a number of Codes of Practice were reviewed and the research found that they can be a very useful instrument to facilitate the adoption of either minimum or best management practices in primary industries in New Zealand. The project identified a number of issues and critical success factors for the development and implementation of Codes of Practice which if addressed would enhance the potential value of the code and the level of adoption.

PUBLICATIONS

A MAF Policy Technical Paper (or papers) are likely, based on the three reports:

Wharfe, L and Manhire, J. Effectiveness of Codes of Practice – Overview Report

Wharfe, L and Manhire, J. Effectiveness of Codes of Practice – Case Study Report

Rush, M. Effectiveness of Codes of Practice – Literature Review

4.7 FRM 227

Programme Title:	Poultry Welfare
Programme Leader:	Lindsay Matthews
Institution:	AgResearch CRI

RESEARCH PROGRAMME NOT YET COMPLETED AND REPORTED AT TIME OF THE PREPARATION OF THIS PUBLICATION. THIS WILL BE REPORTED IN NEXT RESEARCH RESULTS PUBLICATION.

4.8 FRM 228

Programme Title:	Biodiversity conservation
Programme Leader:	Eckehard Brockerhoff
Institution:	Forest Research CRI

SUMMARY

The goals of this project were:

i. to review and summarise relevant international agreements and national policy regarding the protection of threatened introduced species;

ii. to review current systems for the categorisation, monitoring and protection of such species;

iii. to identify and compile a list of threatened non-indigenous plants and animals in New Zealand, including genetic resources in the form of varieties of cultivated plants, review their status, and propose additional measures, where necessary, that could be undertaken in New Zealand to ensure their future protection; and

iv. to identify relevant agencies to hold information on, monitor, and safeguard threatened introduced species and genetic resources.

BACKGROUND

This project relates to the Convention on Biological Diversity, which recognises exotic species as having value for sustainable and traditional use and because they may be globally threatened. The New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy provides a policy background (in Objective 4.5) but contrary to increased efforts for the protection of indigenous biodiversity, little progress has been made on the status of exotic species in New Zealand, except for the detrimental aspects around such species that have become invasive aliens. Previous work on the conservation of exotic taxa, such as the report by Margot Forde et al. (1985), is reviewed.

APPROACH

This report provides a review of the available information on exotic plants, animals and cultures that are present in a wide variety of situations, for example as crop and herd species, as germplasm and in seed banks, or as feral, invasive species. The emphasis is on exotic taxa that are deemed threatened based on formal assessments (e.g. IUCN or country redlists) or informal classification. The information was compiled from the literature, surveys of collections and databases, direct approaches of experts, collection holders, and various other sources. A review of international and national policy and systems relevant for the conservation of (threatened) introduced species was undertaken to develop recommendations for the improved protection of threatened introduced taxa.

Outcomes:

Exotic plant and animal species are the foundation of most of New Zealand’s land-based wealth, and New Zealand is home to an extraordinary number of exotic species. Many of these species are threatened in their native range (e.g., according to IUCN classifications), and New Zealand can provide a refuge for these (the ‘Noah’s Ark concept’), but our knowledge of the exotic taxa that are present and of their conservation requirements is far from complete. Similarly, there are numerous cases of exotic crops, garden and amenity plants, rare animal breeds, etc. that are considered ‘rare’ or ‘endangered’, although formal threat assessment criteria are often lacking. Also, as alien invasives, some exotics pose a threat to the conservation of indigenous species, and conservation efforts need to be balanced against such risks, and against the need to conserve threatened indigenous taxa.

There is an impressive number of often substantial collections of exotic species in New Zealand; we estimate this at 3-4000 significant holdings. Of the 48 respondents to our main survey, almost half had over 1000 types in their collections. Most collections are funded privately, and lack of funding is a common problem. A large proportion of respondents also cited MAF and ERMA restrictions as a concern. Only about half of the collections have evaluated the conservation status or value of species they hold. Many other challenges that collections face are highlighted. Case studies of different kinds of collections ranging from rare animal breeds to heritage crops are provided. A survey of globally threatened tree species in New Zealand was undertaken and a database was developed. This revealed the presence of at least 267 threatened tree species, including 3 tree species listed as ‘extinct in the wild’ and 15 species listed as ‘critically endangered’. Similar cases in the animal kingdom are reported, for example the presence of the British genotype of the short-haired bumble bee which is extinct in Britain, 2^nd efforts are underway to re-introduce it from New Zealand stock.

There is no simple solution to address these issues and in many instances a collaborative approach is required. Nineteen recommendations are presented, ranging through collection standards, identification needs, funding and other resources, completion of the Biodiversity Index, regional facilities, and a changed perspective of exotic biota. A workshop to develop the issues and solutions is recommended.

Summary:

This project provides a review of the situation of threatened introduced species in New Zealand, including policy, categorisation, degree of protection, inventories and case studies of selected taxa and categories, and a set of recommendations to improve the protection of such species. The Convention on Biological Diversity recognises exotic species as having value for sustainable and traditional use, and because they may be globally threatened, and the New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy reflects this (Objective 4.5), recognising the pest potential of exotics.

A literature review, surveys of collections and databases, and queries of experts and collection holders were undertaken, emphasising threatened exotic taxa. There are many hundred threatened exotics in New Zealand in collections or in the wild, with little formal protection, and the perhaps 3-4000 collections face many challenges. Recommendations cover issues such as collection standards, identification needs, funding, the Biodiversity Index, regional facilities, perspectives of exotic biota and the holding of a workshop to develop solutions.

4.9 FRM 229

Programme Title:	Pathogen transmission routes
Programme Leader:	Rob Collins
Institution:	NIWA

SUMMARY

Objective 5 of the Pathogen Transmission Routes Research Programme focused upon three areas of related research:

i. faecal contamination of surface runoff;

ii. riparian attenuation of faecal microbes; and

iii. the drawing up of preliminary riparian management guidelines with respect to faecal microbes.

BACKGROUND

Faecal Contamination of Surface Runoff

A large-scale rainfall simulator (LRS) has been used to quantify the delivery of microbes to a hill-country stream via surface runoff. The LRS encompasses 1,050 m² of a steep (18°) grazed hillside within the Whatawhata research station, west of Hamilton. Surface runoff generated by the LRS converges naturally and flows directly to a headwater stream. At the point of convergence, flow was measured and samples collected for E. coli analysis. Eleven simulated rain events have been conducted between 0 (stock still present) and 75 days after grazing by sheep, in both summer and winter.

The total number or load of bacteria washed across the outflow flume during an event varied between 2 × 10⁸ and 6 × 10¹¹ most probable number (MPN). Since the outflow drains into a headwater stream, these loads represent a substantial delivery (2 × 10⁵ to 6 × 10⁸ MPN/m²) of E. coli direct to the stream network. Event mean concentrations varied between 3 × 10³ and 6 × 10⁶ MPN/100 mL. Both the load and event-mean concentration of bacteria declined exponentially with the time elapsed since the paddock was last grazed.

APPROACH

Riparian Attenuation of Faecal Microbes

Field studies on the Ruakura farm campus, Hamilton have continued to determine the ability of grass (‘buffer’) strips to trap Campylobacter and E. coli washed in by surface runoff. The results show that flow rate (or hydraulic loading) has a clear impact upon the recovery (the percentage of the applied microbe recovered in the outflow, i.e. the inverse of attenuation) of microbes. At low flow, microbial recovery is ≤ 5% (i.e. entrapment is ≥ 95%) but at high flows, recovery ranges between 15 % and 100 %. This finding raises important implications for buffer strip design, particularly if appreciable faecal contamination is only delivered by surface runoff during large events.

Preliminary Riparian Guidelines

Brief guidelines have been established describing riparian buffer effectiveness with respect to faecal microbes. These account for variations in efficiency with slope, soil type and buffer width.

4.10 FRM 230

Programme Title:	Riparian effectiveness review
Programme Leader:	Rob Collins
Institution:	NIWA

SUMMARY

To review and summarise published research on the efficiency and management of riparian buffer zones with respect to the attenuation of sediment and nutrients, and biodiversity enhancement.

BACKGROUND

Riparian buffer zones are often advocated as environmental management tools for reducing impacts of land use activities on aquatic resources. While there have been numerous studies on the efficiency of riparian buffer zones with respect to sediment and nutrients, many of these studies have been small-scale and site-specific. Therefore, a review of these studies is needed to consider an assessment of the catchment scale factors that influence the effectiveness of riparian buffer zones in attenuating catchment loads.

APPROACH

A literature review combined with discussions with scientists involved in riparian zone research.

Outcomes:

There is clear evidence that riparian buffer zones can be effective at removing nutrients and sediment from surface and subsurface flow paths. While impressive removal rates of over 90% of the soluble nitrate travelling through buffer zones have been reported in several studies, the review revealed that the effectiveness of contaminant removal can differ according to the type and width of the buffer zone, characteristics of the local hydrology, soils, and vegetation, and the mode of contaminant transport to streams.

While sediment and total phosphorus removal rates increase with increasing buffer width, substantial sediment removal occurs within a few metres of the upslope boundary. Grass filter strips in particular have been shown to be very effective at trapping sediment particles. Much of the coarse fraction of sediment may be removed within 5 m of grass buffer, but finer particles require a greater buffer width. Buffer effectiveness can be minimal on steep slopes where flow convergence occurs, and the width of buffer zones may need to extend into these areas.

Buffer zones may have a limited life span where they can continue to be effective for removal of some contaminants. For example, over time, they may become saturated with phosphorus, pore spaces in soils may clog with sediments, or dissolved nutrient uptake by plants may be greatest during early growth phases and decline as vegetation matures. Buffers may need to be wider, or sustainable methods of plant (and thus nutrient) removal may need to be investigated, to retain their uptake capacity long term.

Summary:

The study showed that riparian buffer zones can be effective at removing nutrients and sediment from surface and subsurface flow paths. The effectiveness of contaminant removal can differ according to the type and width of the buffer zone, characteristics of the local hydrology, soils, and vegetation, and the mode of contaminant transport to streams. To maintain their effectiveness, buffer zones need to be managed to ensure their uptake capacity.

PUBLICATIONS

This report was published as a MAF Technical paper; Review of Riparian Zone Effectiveness, Technical Paper 04/05.

4.11 FRM 231

Programme Title:	Measuring climate volatility
Programme Leader:	Jim Renwick
Institution:	NIWA

SUMMARY

Measuring volatility in New Zealand’s climate.

BACKGROUND

This report aims to provide a preliminary broad-scale investigation on the volatility in New Zealand’s climate. “Volatility” is assessed here as the variance about the mean climate (or alternatively the standard deviation, which is the square root of variance).

Following the extreme climate experienced during summer 2003-04 (especially February 2004), MAF Policy commissioned NIWA to investigate New Zealand’s climate volatility, and if possible ascertain what drives climate variance in the New Zealand region. Of particular interest is whether the volatility has changed over time. Much of the international research effort on the climate system goes into studying changes in mean climate, and no prior New Zealand research has been undertaken on changes in climate variance, even though this topic is of broad interest.

APPROACH

New Zealand’s climate is affected by local and larger-scale atmospheric circulation (patterns of high and low pressures), wind flows across the country and by sea temperatures both locally and globally. Variations of these influences occur on daily, seasonal, and interannual timescales, and are set against recent trends, some likely to be associated with global warming.

A first-order approach was used. Selected indices of circulation, winds and sea temperature volatility were calculated in the Southern Hemisphere and New Zealand region, as well as indices of variance and extremity at selected climate stations. These indices were used as a multi-dimensional measure of volatility, covering a range of spatial and temporal scales, and were linked with large-scale possible forcing mechanisms such as El Niño/La Niña Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO), if possible.

Outcomes:

The spatial variance of Southern Hemisphere extra-tropical 500 hPa circulation (a layer about 5 km above the Earth’s surface, where height variations mirror surface pressure variations but are less noisy) since 1979 is linked to ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) extremes. Circulation data at 500 hPa prior to 1979 were not used, due to an inhomogeneity in variability, caused by the advent of satellite sensing.

There has been a significant increase in the standard deviation of extreme daily pressure differences between Christchurch and Campbell Island (to the south of New Zealand). This reflects that extreme zonal winds (both westerly and easterly) have increased south of Christchurch since 1960, consistent with increases since 1979 in the standard deviation of day-to-day fluctuations in 500 hPa heights over the southern oceans. The variance of 500 hPa heights since 1979 has decreased west of New Zealand and increased east of the country, although both changes are small.

Mean sea surface temperatures (SSTs) have decreased slightly around New Zealand since 1951, probably as a result of more El Niño events over this period. This cooling of local SSTs due to El Niños has more than offset any regional warming component in SSTs that might be attributable to global temperature increase over this period. The standard deviation of SSTs has significantly decreased in the Tasman Sea, possibly linked to a decrease in extreme daily southerly winds over the Tasman Sea.

Changes in the average and standard deviation of daily air temperatures since 1951 were analysed at nine selected New Zealand climate stations spread across the country. Average daily minimum temperature has increased, and Daily Temperature Range (DTR) decreased, at eight sites (Milford Sound being the exception, with the opposite trends). For daily maximum temperature, significant decreasing trends in standard deviation are observed at Auckland and Wellington; no sites show significant increases. For daily minimum temperature, the standard deviation has decreased at Ruakura, Ashburton and Dunedin, but increased at Napier and Milford. Care is needed in interpreting these new results, as it is not clear whether exposure changes or climate forcing is causing these observed changes in daily temperature variability.

Four rainfall and four temperature stations were analysed for extremes. The frequency of extremely cold nights has generally decreased since 1950, except at Milford Sound, and the frequency of extremely hot days has increased at Musselburgh. Indices of total rainfall, the number of rain days, and the frequency of extreme daily rainfall, have decreased at Gisborne and Ruakura since 1940, possibly linked to a significant reduction in extreme easterly winds between Auckland and Christchurch (often related to deluge rainfall). Ruakura shows a significant reduction in maximum 5-day rainfall total, while the size of extreme daily rainfalls has significantly decreased at Gisborne and strongly increased at Milford Sound. A drought indicator has increased at Musselburgh since 1931. The last two results may be linked to an increase in extreme daily westerlies over the lower South Island.

Summary:

This analysis has highlighted a number of changes in climate volatility in the New Zealand region, and it is difficult to synthesise all the findings into a coherent picture. The answer to the question “has climate volatility in New Zealand increased?” is far from clear-cut, and may depend on which part of the country you live in. Results suggest a trend towards increased extreme west-east fluctuations, and reduced extreme north-south fluctuations, in the regional circulation. Statistically significant reductions in daily north-south winds were found, and this is consistent with the general decrease in daily variability of New Zealand air temperatures at most sites studied, and possibly also with reduced monthly variability in sea temperatures. The ultimate cause of the circulation changes has not been identified, although we note that increasing westerly winds in the southern ocean have been observed, and this trend is attributed to both greenhouse gas changes and the ozone hole. Climate models also project considerable further strengthening of the westerlies over and south of New Zealand during this century. Further work would be needed to explore the full implications for future New Zealand climate volatility.

PUBLICATIONS

NIWA Client Report AKL 2004-065.

5. Possum Biocontrol Category

5.1 PBC 258

Programme Title:	Bovine Tuberculosis
Programme Leader:	Bryce Buddle
Institution:	AgResearch CRI

SUMMARY

Tuberculin skin tests in cattle

To gain an understanding of the immunological processes involved in the tuberculin skin test response of M. bovis-infected cattle, the expression of cytokine and chemokine genes was measured in skin test reaction sites at several time-points after injection of the skit test reagent, PPD. Real time PCR analysis showed that following injection of bovine PPD there was an early strong expression of a wide range of cytokine and chemokines, including Th1 cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-12 and IL-18) and chemokines (IL-8 and MCP-1) which would promote recruitment of immune cells into the reaction site.

The addition of a recombinant bovine cytokine, granulocyte macrophage colony stimulatory factor (GM-CSF), PPD resulted in a significant enhancement of the skin test response at 5 hours after injection of PPD in Mycobacterium bovis-infected cattle. However there was no enhancement in the response at 72 hours after injection when the skin test is routinely read and at any time point when a synthetic oligodeoxynucleotide (CpG ODN) was added to PPD.

The addition of recombinant bovine GM-CSF to whole blood cultures set up for the interferon-γ (IFN-γ) test enhanced the sensitivity of the test for the detection of M. bovis-infected animals. Further studies are required to ensure that the specificity of the test is maintained.

Oral tuberculosis vaccines for possums

Oral bait BCG vaccines are being developed to vaccinate possums against tuberculosis and a study was carried out to determine the consequences of cattle inadvertently consuming these baits. A proportion of the cattle which had consumed a single or 10 oral baits reacted positively in the caudal fold skin test, although these animals could be differentiated from those infected by M. bovis by using specific mycobacterial antigens in the whole blood IFN-γ test. The cattle which had consumed oral bait BCG vaccine had a significant level of protection against tuberculosis which was similar to that following subcutaneous vaccination with BCG.

Possums which had consumed oral bait BCG vaccine excreted low numbers of BCG in their faeces in the week following vaccination and most of the BCG in the faeces remained viable for only a week. BCG could be isolated from possums in low numbers from the gut lymphatic tissue 3 to 8 weeks after consuming oral bait BCG.

Possums which had consumed single or multiple doses of oral bait BCG vaccine produced strong cellular immune responses to M. bovis antigens following vaccination. These possums have been challenged with M. bovis and within the next month will be killed to determine the level of protection following vaccination with different doses of oral BCG vaccine.

Landcare scientists have been undertaking surveys to determine suitable areas for conducting a field trial to test the efficacy of oral bait BCG vaccine for wild possums. One potential site is the Orongoronga Valley but only a small number of tuberculous possums were found in this area. Additional sites are being surveyed in the hope that sites with a higher prevalence of tuberculosis can be found.

Improving oral BCG vaccines

One pitfall associated with oral BCG in possums is that the BCG may be inactivated by stomach acid. A drug, ranitidine, and an antacid, sodium bicarbonate, were tested for their ability to reduce gastric acidity in possums. Ranitidine at a dose of 75 mg reduced gastric acidity for a period of at least 4 hours but onset of action was slow, while sodium bicarbonate had minimal effect. Further studies are planned to identify a preparation which would be faster acting than ranitidine.

A search to identify a method for conjugating a protein which could be used in an immunosterilising vaccine to live BCG to produce a combined tuberculosis/biocontrol vaccine for possums was performed. The chemicals involved in conventional conjugation techniques would all adversely affect the viability of BCG and one of the few possibilities would be to conjugate the protein to an antibody which would bind to BCG.

A practical method to deliver an immunosterilising vaccine to wild possums is via an oral bait, but it has proven difficult to induce the production of antibodies in possums when vaccines are delivered by this route. Lack of a suitable adjuvant for an oral vaccine is likely to be one of the major problems. We have developed a mouse model for screening adjuvants based on a transgenic mouse strain which produces very strong immune responses to a model antigen, ovalbumin. Using this model, two new adjuvants derived from mycobacterial cell wall products have been identified.

Macrophages and protective immunity

Macrophages are the main target cell in vivo during infection with mycobacteria and protective immunity is associated with the activation of these macrophages by T-lymphocytes. In a new area of research, interactions between M. bovis and macrophages from possums and cattle are being studied to lead to an improved understanding of protective immunity and rational design of improved tuberculosis vaccines and diagnostic tests.

PUBLICATIONS

In the 12 months from July 2003 to June 2004, our group has had a total of 14 scientific papers on bovine tuberculosis or possum immunology published, accepted or submitted for publication in peer-reviewed scientific journals.

Appendix One

Institution	Title in brief	Programme			Cost (inc GST)
Facilitating Market Access
Massey University	Prolapses in pigs		FMA	110	$7,875
Crop and Food CRI	Soil phytosanitary issues		FMA	111	$53,217
Canesis	Transport and heat stress		FMA	113	$86,625
Massey University	Economic costs and animal welfare		FMA	114	$33,600
Canterbury Agriculture	Deer wintering systems		FMA	115	$44,438
AgResearch CRI	Shelter for lambing		FMA	116	$31,500
Massey University	Lambs’ neural responses		FMA	118	$66,700
Nimmo-Bell Consultancy	Level 3 Post Entry Quarantine		FMA	119	$35,438
Forest Research CRI	Benchmarking New Zealand forest competiveness		FMA	120	$28,688
AgResearch CRI	Shade for sheep		FMA	123	$54,027
Maintaining Biosecurity
AgriQuality	Contact rates for livestock		MBS	329	$125,550
Crop and Food CRI	Treatments for peat		MBS	330	$35,327
Forest Research CRI	Fungi heat tolerance		MBS	331	$45,040
Forest Research CRI	Modeling forest health		MBS	332	$33,825
Forest Research CRI	Fusarium Circinatum		MBS	333	$49,107
Auckland University	Phytoplasmas, viruses and viroids		MBS	336	$67,500
Crop and Food CRI	Surface decontamination		MBS	337	$23,943
Lincoln University	Hitchhiker pests		MBS	339	$34,626
Auckland Zoo	Bird haemoparasites		MBS	340	$63,432
Crop and Food CRI	Nucleic acid extraction		MBS	343	$23,660
Auckland University	Generic detection of viruses (Part 2)		MBS	344	$50,625
Massey University	Veterinary sentinel project (03-04)		MBS	345	$88,200
Crop and Food CRI	Steam sterilisation of peat		MBS	347	$16,875
Promoting Industry and Rural Community Performance
Agribusiness Group	Rural – Urban rating differentials		ICP	441	$55,800
AgriQuality	Lifestyle blocks		ICP	442	$112,727
Martin Jenkins and Associates	Skills assessment		ICP	560	$73,749
Facilitating Resource Management
Lincoln University	Stock unit system (Ex 02/03)		FRM	220	$49,896
BRANZ	Timber products		FRM	222	$23,625
Landcare CRI	Podocarp – Tawa growth		FRM	223	$42,000
TACCRA Consultancy	Silver beech grown in Southland		FRM	224	$25,388
Landcare CRI	Review ecosystem models		FRM	225	$27,562
Agribusiness Consultants	Voluntary Codes of Practice		FRM	226	$35,663
AgResearch CRI	Poultry Welfare		FRM	227	$45,000
Forest Research CRI	Biodiversity conservation		FRM	228	$75,113
NIWA CRI	Pathogen transmission routes		FRM	229	$90,000
NIWA CRI	Riparian effectiveness review		FRM	230	$28,125
NIWA CRI	Measuring climate volatility		FRM	231	$9,000
Possum Biocontrol
AgResearch CRI	Bovine Tuberculosis (2003/04 Program)		PBC	258	$787,500

Appendix Two

SCIENCE POLICY UNIT

Staff:

Dr Peter Kettle, Director Biosecurity & Science Policy
Dr Graeme King, Manager, Science Policy Team
Dr Sharon Adamson, Senior Policy Analyst
Dr Fiona Pringle, Policy Analyst
Paulina Wilhelm, Policy Analyst
Tony Warrington, Senior Scientist
Moira Jones, Personal Assistant

Function:

To provide advice on science policy relevant to agriculture and forestry; carry out or commission such operational research as needed to ensure scientific input into development of agricultural policies and administer research programmes designed to provide input to policy outputs.

Address:

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
PO Box 2526
ASB Bank House
101-103 The Terrace
WELLINGTON
Telephone (04) 894 0100
Facsimile (04) 474 4206

Contact for Enquiries

Farm Monitoring Programme Manager
Monitoring and Evaluation
MAF Policy
PO Box 2526
Wellington
NEW ZEALAND
Phone: +64 4 894 0623
Fax: +64 4 894 0741
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